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[935]
["[1231]"]
["ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATION"]
["HISTORICAL BACKGROUND"]
["While the Declaration of Independence was under consideration in"]
["the Continental Congress, and before it was finally agreed upon, meas-"]
["ures were taken for the establishment of a constitutional form of govern-"]
["ment; and on the 11th of June, 1776, it was ‘‘Resolved, That a committee"]
["be appointed to prepare and digest the form of a confederation to be"]
["entered into between these Colonies’’; which committee was appointed"]
["the next day, June 12, and consisted of a member from each Colony,"]
["namely: Mr. Bartlett, Mr. S. Adams, Mr. Hopkins, Mr. Sherman, Mr."]
["R. R. Livingston, Mr. Dickinson, Mr. McKean, Mr. Stone, Mr. Nelson,"]
["Mr. Hewes, Mr. E. Rutledge, and Mr. Gwinnett. On the 12th of July,"]
["1776, the committee reported a draft of the Articles of Confederation,"]
["which was printed for the use of the members under the strictest injunc-"]
["tions of secrecy."]
["This report underwent a thorough discussion in Congress, from time"]
["to time, until the 15th of November, 1777; on which day, ‘‘Articles"]
["of Confederation and Perpetual Union’’ were finally agreed to in form,"]
["and they were directed to be proposed to the legislatures of all the"]
["United States, and if approved by them, they were advised to authorize"]
["their delegates to ratify the same in the Congress of the United States;"]
["and in that event they were to become conclusive. On the 17th of Novem-"]
["ber, 1777, the Congress agreed upon the form of a circular letter to"]
["accompany the Articles of Confederation, which concluded with a rec-"]
["ommendation to each of the several legislatures ‘‘to invest its delegates"]
["with competent powers, ultimately, and in the name and behalf of the"]
["State, to subscribe articles of confederation and perpetual union of the"]
["United States, and to attend Congress for that purpose on or before"]
["the 10th day of March next.’’ This letter was signed by the President"]
["of Congress and sent, with a copy of the articles, to each State legisla-"]
["ture."]
["On the 26th of June, 1778, Congress agreed upon the form of a"]
["ratification of the Articles of Confederation, and directed a copy of the"]
["articles and the ratification to be engrossed on parchment; which, on"]
["the 9th of July, 1778, having been examined and the blanks filled,"]
["was signed by the delegates of New Hampshire, Massachusetts Bay,"]
["Rhode Island and Providence Plantations, Connecticut, New York, Penn-"]
["sylvania, Virginia, and South Carolina. Congress then directed that a"]
["circular letter be addressed to the States whose delegates were not"]
["present, or being present, conceived they were not authorized to sign"]
["the ratification, informing them how many and what States had ratified"]
["the Articles of Confederation, and desiring them, with all convenient"]
["dispatch, to authorize their delegates to ratify the same. Of these States,"]
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[936]
["ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATIONø1231¿"]
["North Carolina ratified on the 21st and Georgia on the 24th of July,"]
["1778; New Jersey on the 26th of November following; Delaware on"]
["the 5th of May, 1779; Maryland on the 1st of March, 1781; and on"]
["the 2d of March, 1781, Congress assembled under the new form of"]
["government."]
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[937]
["1 Adopted by the Continental Congress on November 15, 1777, while meeting"]
["at York, Pennsylvania, which served as the site of the National Capital from"]
["September 30, 1777, to June 27, 1778. Ratification of the Articles by the respective"]
["delegates commenced on July 9, 1778, in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, but was"]
["not completed until March 1, 1781, when the Articles were signed by the delegates"]
["from Maryland."]
["ø1231¿"]
["ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATION 1"]
["1231.1ACT OF CONFEDERATION OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA"]
["TO ALL TO WHOM THESE PRESENTS SHALL COME, WE THE"]
["UNDERSIGNED DELEGATES OF THE STATES AFFIXED TO"]
["OUR NAMES, SEND GREETINGS"]
["Whereas the Delegates of the United States of America"]
["in Congress assembled did on the 15th day of November"]
["in the Year of our Lord One Thousand Seven Hundred"]
["and Seventy seven, and in the Second Year of the Inde-"]
["pendence of America agree to certain articles of Confed-"]
["eration and perpetual Union between the states of"]
["Newhampshire, Massachusetts-bay, Rhodeisland and"]
["Providence Plantations, Connecticut, New York, New Jer-"]
["sey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, North"]
["Carolina, South Carolina and Georgia in the Words fol-"]
["lowing, viz."]
["‘‘ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATION AND PERPETUAL UNION BE-"]
["TWEEN THE STATES OF NEWHAMPSHIRE, MASSACHUSETTS-"]
["BAY, RHODEISLAND AND PROVIDENCE PLANTATIONS, CON-"]
["NECTICUT, NEW YORK, NEW JERSEY, PENNSYLVANIA, DELA-"]
["WARE, MARYLAND, VIRGINIA, NORTH CAROLINA, SOUTH"]
["CAROLINA AND GEORGIA"]
["1231.2ARTICLE I. The Stile of this confederacy shall be ‘‘The"]
["United States of America.’’"]
["1231.3ARTICLE II. Each State retains its Sovereignty, freedom"]
["and independence, and every Power, Jurisdiction and"]
["right, which is not by this confederation expressly dele-"]
["gated to the United States in Congress assembled."]
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[938]
["ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATIONø1231.4¿"]
["1231.4 ARTICLE III. The said states hereby severally enter into"]
["a firm league of friendship with each other, for their com-"]
["mon defence, the security of their Liberties, and their"]
["mutual and general welfare, binding themselves to assist"]
["each other, against all force offered to, or attacks made"]
["upon them, or any of them, on account of religion, sov-"]
["ereignty, trade, or any other pretence whatever."]
["1231.5 ARTICLE IV. The better to secure and perpetuate mutual"]
["friendship and intercourse among the people of the dif-"]
["ferent states in this union, the free inhabitants of each"]
["of these states, paupers, vagabonds and fugitives from"]
["Justice excepted, shall be entitled to all privileges and"]
["immunities of free citizens in the several states, and the"]
["people of each state shall have free ingress and regress"]
["to and from any other state, and shall enjoy therein all"]
["the privileges of trade and commerce, subject to the same"]
["duties, impositions and restrictions as the inhabitants"]
["thereof respectively, provided that such restrictions shall"]
["not extend so far as to prevent the removal of property"]
["imported into any state, to any other state of which the"]
["Owner is an inhabitant, provided also that no imposition,"]
["duties or restriction shall be laid by any state, on the"]
["property of the united states, or either of them."]
["If any Person guilty of, or charged with treason, felony"]
["or other high misdemeanor in any state, shall flee from"]
["Justice, and be found in any of the united states, he"]
["shall upon demand of the Governor or executive power,"]
["of the state from which he fled, be delivered up and re-"]
["moved to the state having jurisdiction of his offence."]
["Full faith and credit shall be given in each of these"]
["states to the records, acts and judicial proceedings of the"]
["courts and magistrates of every other state."]
["1231.6 ARTICLE V. For the more convenient management of"]
["the general interest of the united states, delegates shall"]
["be annually appointed in such manner as the legislature"]
["of each state shall direct, to meet in Congress on the"]
["first Monday in November, in every year, with a power"]
["reserved to each state, to recall its delegates, or any of"]
["them, at any time within the year, and to send others"]
["in their stead, for the remainder of the Year."]
["No state shall be represented in Congress by less than"]
["two, nor by more than seven Members; and no person"]
["shall be capable of being a delegate for more than three"]
["years in any term of six years; nor shall any person,"]
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[939]
["ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATION ø1231.7¿"]
["being a delegate, be capable of holding any office under"]
["the united states, for which he, or another for his benefit"]
["receives any salary, fees or emolument of any kind."]
["Each state shall maintain its own delegates in a meet-"]
["ing of the states, and while they act as members of the"]
["committee of the states."]
["In determining questions in the united states, in Con-"]
["gress assembled, each state shall have one vote."]
["Freedom of speech and debate in Congress shall not"]
["be impeached or questioned in any Court, or place out"]
["of Congress, and the members of congress shall be pro-"]
["tected in their persons from arrests and imprisonments,"]
["during the time of their going to and from, and attendance"]
["on congress, except for treason, felony, or breach of the"]
["peace."]
["1231.7ARTICLE VI. No state without the Consent of the united"]
["states in congress assembled, shall send any embassy to,"]
["or receive any embassy from, or enter into any conference,"]
["agreement, alliance or treaty with any King, prince or"]
["state; nor shall any person holding any office of profit"]
["or trust under the united states, or any of them, accept"]
["of any present, emolument, office or title of any kind"]
["whatever from any king, prince or foreign state; nor shall"]
["the united states in congress assembled, or any of them,"]
["grant any title of nobility."]
["No two or more states shall enter into any treaty, con-"]
["federation or alliance whatever between them, without"]
["the consent of the united states in congress assembled,"]
["specifying accurately the purposes for which the same"]
["is to be entered into, and how long it shall continue."]
["No state shall lay any imposts of duties, which may"]
["interfere with any stipulations in treaties, entered into"]
["by the united states in congress assembled with any king,"]
["prince or state, in pursuance of any treaties already pro-"]
["posed by congress to the courts of France and Spain."]
["No vessels of war shall be kept up in time of peace"]
["by any state, except such number only, as shall be deemed"]
["necessary by the united states in congress assembled, for"]
["the defence of such state, or its trade; nor shall any body"]
["of forces be kept up by any state, in time of peace, except"]
["such number only, as in the judgment of the united states,"]
["in congress assembled, shall be deemed requisite to garri-"]
["son the forts necessary for the defence of such state; but"]
["every state shall always keep up a well regulated and"]
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[940]
["ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATIONø1231.8¿"]
["disciplined militia, sufficiently armed and accoutred, and"]
["shall provide and constantly have ready for use, in public"]
["stores, a due number of field-pieces and tents, and a prop-"]
["er quantity of arms, ammunition and camp equipage."]
["No state shall engage in any war without the consent"]
["of the united states in congress assembled, unless such"]
["state be actually invaded by enemies, or shall have re-"]
["ceived certain advice of a resolution being formed by some"]
["nation of Indians to invade such state, and the danger"]
["is so imminent as not to admit of a delay, till the united"]
["states in congress assembled can be consulted: nor shall"]
["any state grant commissions to any ships or vessels of"]
["war, nor letters of marque or reprisal, except it be after"]
["a declaration of war by the united states in Congress"]
["assembled, and then only against the kingdom or state"]
["and the subjects thereof, against which war has been so"]
["declared, and under such regulations as shall be estab-"]
["lished by the united states in congress assembled, unless"]
["such state be infested by pirates, in which case vessels"]
["of war may be fitted out for that occasion, and kept so"]
["long as the danger shall continue, or until the united"]
["states in congress assembled shall determine otherwise."]
["1231.8 ARTICLE VII. When land-forces are raised by any state"]
["for the common defence, all officers of or under the rank"]
["of colonel, shall be appointed by the legislature of each"]
["state respectively by whom such forces shall be raised,"]
["or in such manner as such state shall direct, and all"]
["vacancies shall be filled up by the state which first made"]
["the appointment."]
["1231.9 ARTICLE VIII. All charges of war, and all other expences"]
["that shall be incurred for the common defence or general"]
["welfare, and allowed by the united states in congress as-"]
["sembled, shall be defrayed out of a common treasury,"]
["which shall be supplied by the several states, in propor-"]
["tion to the value of all land within each state, granted"]
["to or surveyed for any Person, as such land and the build-"]
["ings and improvements thereon shall be estimated accord-"]
["ing to such mode as the united states in congress assem-"]
["bled, shall from time to time direct and appoint."]
["The taxes for paying that proportion shall be laid and"]
["levied by the authority and direction of the legislatures"]
["of the several states within the time agreed upon by the"]
["united states in congress assembled."]
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[941]
["ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATION ø1231.10¿"]
["1231.10ARTICLE IX. The united states in congress assembled,"]
["shall have the sole and exclusive right and power of deter-"]
["mining on peace and war, except in the cases mentioned"]
["in the sixth article—of sending and receiving"]
["embassadors—entering into treaties and alliances, pro-"]
["vided that no treaty of commerce shall be made whereby"]
["the legislative power of the respective states shall be re-"]
["strained from imposing such imposts and duties on for-"]
["eigners, as their own people are subjected to, or from"]
["prohibiting the exportation or importation of any species"]
["of goods or commodities whatsoever—of establishing rules"]
["for deciding in all cases, what captures on land or water"]
["shall be legal, and in what manner prizes taken by land"]
["or naval forces in the service of the united states shall"]
["be divided or appropriated—of granting letters of marque"]
["and reprisal in times of peace—appointing courts for the"]
["trial of piracies and felonies committed on the high seas"]
["and establishing courts for receiving and determining fi-"]
["nally appeals in all cases of captures, provided that no"]
["member of congress shall be appointed a judge of any"]
["of the said courts."]
["The united states in congress assembled shall also be"]
["the last resort on appeal in all disputes and differences"]
["now subsisting or that hereafter may arise between two"]
["or more states concerning boundary, jurisdiction or any"]
["other cause whatever, which authority shall always be"]
["exercised in the manner following. Whenever the legisla-"]
["tive or executive authority or lawful agent of any state"]
["in controversy with another shall present a petition to"]
["congress stating the matter in question and praying for"]
["a hearing, notice thereof shall be given by order of con-"]
["gress to the legislative or executive authority of the other"]
["state in controversy, and a day assigned for the appear-"]
["ance of the parties by their lawful agents, who shall then"]
["be directed to appoint by joint consent, commissioners"]
["or judges to constitute a court for hearing and deter-"]
["mining the matter in question: but if they cannot agree,"]
["congress shall name three persons out of each of the"]
["united states, and from the list of such persons each party"]
["shall alternately strike out one, the petitioners beginning,"]
["until the number shall be reduced to thirteen; and from"]
["that number not less than seven, nor more than nine"]
["names as congress shall direct, shall in the presence of"]
["congress be drawn out by lot, and the persons whose"]
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[942]
["ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATIONø1231.10¿"]
["names shall be so drawn or any five of them, shall be"]
["commissioners or judges, to hear and finally determine"]
["the controversy, so always as a major part of the judges"]
["who shall hear the cause shall agree in the determination:"]
["and if either party shall neglect to attend at the day"]
["appointed, without showing reasons, which congress shall"]
["judge sufficient, or being present shall refuse to strike,"]
["the congress shall proceed to nominate three persons out"]
["of each State, and the secretary of congress shall strike"]
["in behalf of such party absent or refusing; and the judg-"]
["ment and sentence of the court to be appointed, in the"]
["manner before prescribed, shall be final and conclusive;"]
["and if any of the parties shall refuse to submit to the"]
["authority of such court, or to appear or defend their claim"]
["or cause, the court shall nevertheless proceed to pro-"]
["nounce sentence, or judgment, which shall in like manner"]
["be final and decisive, the judgment or sentence and other"]
["proceedings being in either case transmitted to congress,"]
["and lodged among the acts of congress for the security"]
["of the parties concerned: provided that every commis-"]
["sioner, before he sits in judgment, shall take an oath"]
["to be administered by one of the judges of the supreme"]
["or superior court of the state, where the cause shall be"]
["tried, ‘‘well and truly to hear and determine the matter"]
["in question, according to the best of his judgment without"]
["favour, affection or hope of reward’’: provided also that"]
["no state shall be deprived of territory for the benefit of"]
["the united states."]
["All controversies concerning the private right of soil"]
["claimed under different grants of two or more states,"]
["whose jurisdiction as they may respect such lands, and"]
["the states which passed such grants are adjusted, the"]
["said grants or either of them being at the same time"]
["claimed to have originated antecedent to such settlement"]
["of jurisdiction, shall on the petition of either party to"]
["the congress of the united states, be finally determined"]
["as near as may be in the same manner as is before pre-"]
["scribed for deciding disputes respecting territorial jurisdic-"]
["tion between different states."]
["The united states in congress assembled shall also have"]
["the sole and exclusive right and power of regulating the"]
["alloy and value of coin struck by their own authority,"]
["or by that of the respective states—fixing the standard"]
["of weights and measures throughout the united states—"]
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[943]
["ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATION ø1231.10¿"]
["regulating the trade and managing all affairs with the"]
["Indians, not members of any of the states, provided that"]
["the legislative right of any state within its own limits"]
["be not infringed or violated—establishing and regulating"]
["post-offices from one state to another, throughout all the"]
["united states, and exacting such postage on the papers"]
["passing thro’ the same as may be requisite to defray the"]
["expences of the said office—appointing all officers of the"]
["land forces, in the service of the united states, excepting"]
["regimental officers—appointing all the officers of the"]
["naval forces, and commissioning all officers whatever in"]
["the service of the united states—making rules for the"]
["government and regulation of the said land and naval"]
["forces, and directing their operations."]
["The united states in congress assembled shall have au-"]
["thority to appoint a committee, to sit in the recess of"]
["congress, to be denominated ‘‘A Committee of the States,’’"]
["and to consist of one delegate from each state; and to"]
["appoint such other committees and civil officers as may"]
["be necessary for managing the general affairs of the"]
["united states under their direction—to appoint one of their"]
["number to preside, provided that no person be allowed"]
["to serve in the office of president more than one year"]
["in any term of three years; to ascertain the necessary"]
["sums of Money to be raised for the service of the united"]
["states, and to appropriate and apply the same for defray-"]
["ing the public expences—to borrow money, or emit bills"]
["on the credit of the united states, transmitting every half"]
["year to the respective states an account of the sums of"]
["moneys so borrowed or emitted—to build and equip a"]
["navy—to agree upon the number of land forces, and to"]
["make requisition from each state for its quota, in propor-"]
["tion to the number of white inhabitants in such state;"]
["which requisitions shall be binding, and thereupon the"]
["legislature of each state shall appoint the regimental offi-"]
["cers, raise the men and cloath, arm and equip them in"]
["a soldier like manner, at the expence of the united states;"]
["and the officers and men so cloathed, armed and equipped"]
["shall march to the place appointed, and within the time"]
["agreed on by the united states in congress assembled:"]
["But if the united states in congress assembled shall, on"]
["consideration of circumstances judge proper that any state"]
["should not raise men, or should raise a smaller number"]
["than its quota, and that any other state should raise"]
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[944]
["ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATIONø1231.11¿"]
["a greater number of men than the quota thereof, such"]
["extra number shall be raised, officered, cloathed, armed"]
["and equipped in the same manner as the quota of such"]
["state, unless the legislature of such state shall judge that"]
["such extra number cannot be safely spared out of the"]
["same, in which case they shall raise, officer, cloath, arm"]
["and equip as many of such extra number as they judge"]
["can be safely spared. And the officers and men so"]
["cloathed, armed and equipped, shall march to the place"]
["appointed, and within the time agreed on by the united"]
["states in congress assembled."]
["The united states in congress assembled shall never"]
["engage in a war, nor grant letters of marque and reprisal"]
["in time of peace, nor enter into any treaties or alliances,"]
["nor coin money, nor regulate the value thereof, nor ascer-"]
["tain the sums and expences necessary for the defence"]
["and welfare of the united states, or any of them, nor"]
["emit bills, nor borrow money on the credit of the united"]
["states, nor appropriate money, nor agree upon the number"]
["of vessels of war, to be built or purchased, or the number"]
["of land or sea forces to be raised, nor appoint a com-"]
["mander-in-chief of the army or navy, unless nine states"]
["assent to the same; nor shall a question on any other"]
["point, except for adjourning from day to day be deter-"]
["mined, unless by the votes of a majority of the united"]
["states in congress assembled."]
["The Congress of the united states shall have power"]
["to adjourn to any time within the year, and to any place"]
["within the united states, so that no period of adjournment"]
["be for a longer duration than the space of six Months,"]
["and shall publish the Journal of their proceedings month-"]
["ly, except such parts thereof relating to treaties, alliances"]
["or military operations as in their judgment require se-"]
["crecy; and the yeas and nays of the delegates of each"]
["state on any question shall be entered on the Journal,"]
["when it is desired by any delegate; and the delegates"]
["of a state, or any of them, at his or their request shall"]
["be furnished with a transcript of the said Journal, except"]
["such parts as are above excepted, to lay before the legisla-"]
["tures of the several states."]
["1231.11 ARTICLE X. The committee of the states, or any nine"]
["of them, shall be authorized to execute, in the recess"]
["of congress such of the powers of congress as the united"]
["states in congress assembled, by the consent of nine"]
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[945]
["ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATION ø1231.15¿"]
["states, shall from time to time think expedient to vest"]
["them with; provided that no power be delegated to the"]
["said committee, for the exercise of which, by the articles"]
["of confederation, the voice of nine states in the congress"]
["of the united states assembled is requisite."]
["1231.12ARTICLE XI. Canada acceding to this confederation, and"]
["joining in the measures of the united states, shall be"]
["admitted into, and entitled to all the advantages of this"]
["union: but no other colony shall be admitted into the"]
["same, unless such admission be agreed to by nine states."]
["1231.13ARTICLE XII. All bills of credit emitted, monies borrowed"]
["and debts contracted by, or under the authority of con-"]
["gress, before the assembling of the united states, in pursu-"]
["ance of the present confederation, shall be deemed and"]
["considered as a charge against the united states, for pay-"]
["ment and satisfaction whereof the said united states, and"]
["the public faith are hereby solemnly pledged."]
["1231.14ARTICLE XIII. Every state shall abide by the determina-"]
["tions of the united states in congress assembled, on all"]
["questions which by this confederation are submitted to"]
["them. And the Articles of this confederation shall be invio-"]
["lably observed by every state, and the union shall be"]
["perpetual; nor shall any alteration at any time hereafter"]
["be made in any of them; unless such alteration be agreed"]
["to in a congress of the united states, and be afterward"]
["confirmed by the legislatures of every state."]
["1231.15AND WHEREAS it has pleased the Great Governor of"]
["the World to incline the hearts of the legislatures we"]
["respectively represent in congress, to approve of, and to"]
["authorize us to ratify the said articles of confederation"]
["and perpetual union. KNOW YE that we the undersigned"]
["delegates, by virtue of the power and authority to us"]
["given for that purpose, do by these presents, in the name"]
["and in behalf of our respective constituents, fully and"]
["entirely ratify and confirm each and every of the said"]
["articles of confederation and perpetual union, and all and"]
["singular the matters and things therein contained: And"]
["we do further solemnly plight and engage the faith of"]
["our respective constituents, that they shall abide by the"]
["determinations of the united states in congress assembled,"]
["on all questions, which by the said confederation are sub-"]
["mitted to them. And that the articles thereof shall be"]
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[946]
["ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATIONø1231.16¿"]
["inviolably observed by the states we respectively represent"]
["and that the union shall be perpetual."]
["1231.16 IN WITNESS whereof we have hereunto set our hands"]
["in Congress. DONE at Philadelphia in the state of Penn-"]
["sylvania the ninth Day of July in the Year of our Lord"]
["one Thousand seven Hundred and Seventy-eight, and in"]
["the third year of the independence of America."]
["On the part and behalf of the State of New Hampshire."]
["JOSIAH BARTLETT, J OHN WENTWORTH, JUNR."]
["A UGUST 8, 1778."]
["On the part and behalf of the State of Massachusetts Bay."]
["JOHN HANCOCK,"]
["S AMUEL ADAMS,"]
["E LBRIDGE G ERRY,"]
["F RANCIS DANA,"]
["J AMES LOVELL ,"]
["S AMUEL HOLTEN."]
["On the part and in behalf of the State of Rhode Island and Providence"]
["Plantations."]
["W ILLIAM ELLERY,"]
["H ENRY MARCHANT,"]
["J OHN COLLINS."]
["On the part and behalf of the State of Connecticut."]
["R OGER SHERMAN,"]
["S AMUEL HUNTINGTON,"]
["O LIVER WOLCOTT ,"]
["T ITUS HOSMER ,"]
["A NDREW ADAMS ."]
["On the part and behalf of the State of New York."]
["J AS DUANE,"]
["F RAS LEWIS,"]
["WILLIAM DUER,"]
["G OUVR MORRIS ."]
["On the part and in behalf of the State of New Jersey."]
["J NO WITHERSPOON, N ATHL SCUDDER, NOV . 26,"]
[1778]
["On the part and behalf of the State of Pennsylvania."]
["ROBT. MORRIS,"]
["D ANIEL ROBERDEAU,"]
["J ONA BAYARD SMITH ,"]
["W ILLIAM CLINGAN,"]
["J OSEPH REED , JULY 22, 1778."]
["On the part and behalf of the State of Delaware."]
["J OHN DICKINSON, MAY 5, 1779,"]
["NICHOLAS VAN DYKE,"]
["T HO. M’KEAN, FEB . 12, 1779."]
["On the part and behalf of the State of Maryland."]
["JOHN HANSON, MARCH 1, 1781, DANIEL CARROL DO"]
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[947]
["ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATION ø1231.16¿"]
["On the part and behalf of the State of Virginia."]
["RICHARD HENRY LEE,"]
["J OHN BANISTER,"]
["T HOMAS ADAMS ,"]
["J NO HARVIE ,"]
["F RANCIS LIGHTFOOT LEE ."]
["On the part and behalf of the State of North Carolina."]
["J OHN PENN, JULY 21, 1778,"]
["C ORNS. HARNETT,"]
["J NO WILLIAMS."]
["On the part and behalf of the State of South Carolina."]
["H ENRY LAURENS,"]
["W ILLIAM HENRY DRAYTON,"]
["JNO MATHEWS,"]
["R ICHARD HUTSON,"]
["T HOS. HEYWARD , JUNR."]
["On the part and behalf of the State of Georgia."]
["JNO WALTON, 24th JULY 1778,"]
["EDWD TELFAIR,"]
["E DWD . LANGWORTHY ."]
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[935]
["[1231]"]
["ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATION"]
["HISTORICAL BACKGROUND"]
["While the Declaration of Independence was under consideration in"]
["the Continental Congress, and before it was finally agreed upon, meas-"]
["ures were taken for the establishment of a constitutional form of govern-"]
["ment; and on the 11th of June, 1776, it was ‘‘Resolved, That a committee"]
["be appointed to prepare and digest the form of a confederation to be"]
["entered into between these Colonies’’; which committee was appointed"]
["the next day, June 12, and consisted of a member from each Colony,"]
["namely: Mr. Bartlett, Mr. S. Adams, Mr. Hopkins, Mr. Sherman, Mr."]
["R. R. Livingston, Mr. Dickinson, Mr. McKean, Mr. Stone, Mr. Nelson,"]
["Mr. Hewes, Mr. E. Rutledge, and Mr. Gwinnett. On the 12th of July,"]
["1776, the committee reported a draft of the Articles of Confederation,"]
["which was printed for the use of the members under the strictest injunc-"]
["tions of secrecy."]
["This report underwent a thorough discussion in Congress, from time"]
["to time, until the 15th of November, 1777; on which day, ‘‘Articles"]
["of Confederation and Perpetual Union’’ were finally agreed to in form,"]
["and they were directed to be proposed to the legislatures of all the"]
["United States, and if approved by them, they were advised to authorize"]
["their delegates to ratify the same in the Congress of the United States;"]
["and in that event they were to become conclusive. On the 17th of Novem-"]
["ber, 1777, the Congress agreed upon the form of a circular letter to"]
["accompany the Articles of Confederation, which concluded with a rec-"]
["ommendation to each of the several legislatures ‘‘to invest its delegates"]
["with competent powers, ultimately, and in the name and behalf of the"]
["State, to subscribe articles of confederation and perpetual union of the"]
["United States, and to attend Congress for that purpose on or before"]
["the 10th day of March next.’’ This letter was signed by the President"]
["of Congress and sent, with a copy of the articles, to each State legisla-"]
["ture."]
["On the 26th of June, 1778, Congress agreed upon the form of a"]
["ratification of the Articles of Confederation, and directed a copy of the"]
["articles and the ratification to be engrossed on parchment; which, on"]
["the 9th of July, 1778, having been examined and the blanks filled,"]
["was signed by the delegates of New Hampshire, Massachusetts Bay,"]
["Rhode Island and Providence Plantations, Connecticut, New York, Penn-"]
["sylvania, Virginia, and South Carolina. Congress then directed that a"]
["circular letter be addressed to the States whose delegates were not"]
["present, or being present, conceived they were not authorized to sign"]
["the ratification, informing them how many and what States had ratified"]
["the Articles of Confederation, and desiring them, with all convenient"]
["dispatch, to authorize their delegates to ratify the same. Of these States,"]
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[936]
["ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATIONø1231¿"]
["North Carolina ratified on the 21st and Georgia on the 24th of July,"]
["1778; New Jersey on the 26th of November following; Delaware on"]
["the 5th of May, 1779; Maryland on the 1st of March, 1781; and on"]
["the 2d of March, 1781, Congress assembled under the new form of"]
["government."]
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[937]
["1 Adopted by the Continental Congress on November 15, 1777, while meeting"]
["at York, Pennsylvania, which served as the site of the National Capital from"]
["September 30, 1777, to June 27, 1778. Ratification of the Articles by the respective"]
["delegates commenced on July 9, 1778, in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, but was"]
["not completed until March 1, 1781, when the Articles were signed by the delegates"]
["from Maryland."]
["ø1231¿"]
["ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATION 1"]
["1231.1ACT OF CONFEDERATION OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA"]
["TO ALL TO WHOM THESE PRESENTS SHALL COME, WE THE"]
["UNDERSIGNED DELEGATES OF THE STATES AFFIXED TO"]
["OUR NAMES, SEND GREETINGS"]
["Whereas the Delegates of the United States of America"]
["in Congress assembled did on the 15th day of November"]
["in the Year of our Lord One Thousand Seven Hundred"]
["and Seventy seven, and in the Second Year of the Inde-"]
["pendence of America agree to certain articles of Confed-"]
["eration and perpetual Union between the states of"]
["Newhampshire, Massachusetts-bay, Rhodeisland and"]
["Providence Plantations, Connecticut, New York, New Jer-"]
["sey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, North"]
["Carolina, South Carolina and Georgia in the Words fol-"]
["lowing, viz."]
["‘‘ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATION AND PERPETUAL UNION BE-"]
["TWEEN THE STATES OF NEWHAMPSHIRE, MASSACHUSETTS-"]
["BAY, RHODEISLAND AND PROVIDENCE PLANTATIONS, CON-"]
["NECTICUT, NEW YORK, NEW JERSEY, PENNSYLVANIA, DELA-"]
["WARE, MARYLAND, VIRGINIA, NORTH CAROLINA, SOUTH"]
["CAROLINA AND GEORGIA"]
["1231.2ARTICLE I. The Stile of this confederacy shall be ‘‘The"]
["United States of America.’’"]
["1231.3ARTICLE II. Each State retains its Sovereignty, freedom"]
["and independence, and every Power, Jurisdiction and"]
["right, which is not by this confederation expressly dele-"]
["gated to the United States in Congress assembled."]
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[938]
["ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATIONø1231.4¿"]
["1231.4 ARTICLE III. The said states hereby severally enter into"]
["a firm league of friendship with each other, for their com-"]
["mon defence, the security of their Liberties, and their"]
["mutual and general welfare, binding themselves to assist"]
["each other, against all force offered to, or attacks made"]
["upon them, or any of them, on account of religion, sov-"]
["ereignty, trade, or any other pretence whatever."]
["1231.5 ARTICLE IV. The better to secure and perpetuate mutual"]
["friendship and intercourse among the people of the dif-"]
["ferent states in this union, the free inhabitants of each"]
["of these states, paupers, vagabonds and fugitives from"]
["Justice excepted, shall be entitled to all privileges and"]
["immunities of free citizens in the several states, and the"]
["people of each state shall have free ingress and regress"]
["to and from any other state, and shall enjoy therein all"]
["the privileges of trade and commerce, subject to the same"]
["duties, impositions and restrictions as the inhabitants"]
["thereof respectively, provided that such restrictions shall"]
["not extend so far as to prevent the removal of property"]
["imported into any state, to any other state of which the"]
["Owner is an inhabitant, provided also that no imposition,"]
["duties or restriction shall be laid by any state, on the"]
["property of the united states, or either of them."]
["If any Person guilty of, or charged with treason, felony"]
["or other high misdemeanor in any state, shall flee from"]
["Justice, and be found in any of the united states, he"]
["shall upon demand of the Governor or executive power,"]
["of the state from which he fled, be delivered up and re-"]
["moved to the state having jurisdiction of his offence."]
["Full faith and credit shall be given in each of these"]
["states to the records, acts and judicial proceedings of the"]
["courts and magistrates of every other state."]
["1231.6 ARTICLE V. For the more convenient management of"]
["the general interest of the united states, delegates shall"]
["be annually appointed in such manner as the legislature"]
["of each state shall direct, to meet in Congress on the"]
["first Monday in November, in every year, with a power"]
["reserved to each state, to recall its delegates, or any of"]
["them, at any time within the year, and to send others"]
["in their stead, for the remainder of the Year."]
["No state shall be represented in Congress by less than"]
["two, nor by more than seven Members; and no person"]
["shall be capable of being a delegate for more than three"]
["years in any term of six years; nor shall any person,"]
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[939]
["ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATION ø1231.7¿"]
["being a delegate, be capable of holding any office under"]
["the united states, for which he, or another for his benefit"]
["receives any salary, fees or emolument of any kind."]
["Each state shall maintain its own delegates in a meet-"]
["ing of the states, and while they act as members of the"]
["committee of the states."]
["In determining questions in the united states, in Con-"]
["gress assembled, each state shall have one vote."]
["Freedom of speech and debate in Congress shall not"]
["be impeached or questioned in any Court, or place out"]
["of Congress, and the members of congress shall be pro-"]
["tected in their persons from arrests and imprisonments,"]
["during the time of their going to and from, and attendance"]
["on congress, except for treason, felony, or breach of the"]
["peace."]
["1231.7ARTICLE VI. No state without the Consent of the united"]
["states in congress assembled, shall send any embassy to,"]
["or receive any embassy from, or enter into any conference,"]
["agreement, alliance or treaty with any King, prince or"]
["state; nor shall any person holding any office of profit"]
["or trust under the united states, or any of them, accept"]
["of any present, emolument, office or title of any kind"]
["whatever from any king, prince or foreign state; nor shall"]
["the united states in congress assembled, or any of them,"]
["grant any title of nobility."]
["No two or more states shall enter into any treaty, con-"]
["federation or alliance whatever between them, without"]
["the consent of the united states in congress assembled,"]
["specifying accurately the purposes for which the same"]
["is to be entered into, and how long it shall continue."]
["No state shall lay any imposts of duties, which may"]
["interfere with any stipulations in treaties, entered into"]
["by the united states in congress assembled with any king,"]
["prince or state, in pursuance of any treaties already pro-"]
["posed by congress to the courts of France and Spain."]
["No vessels of war shall be kept up in time of peace"]
["by any state, except such number only, as shall be deemed"]
["necessary by the united states in congress assembled, for"]
["the defence of such state, or its trade; nor shall any body"]
["of forces be kept up by any state, in time of peace, except"]
["such number only, as in the judgment of the united states,"]
["in congress assembled, shall be deemed requisite to garri-"]
["son the forts necessary for the defence of such state; but"]
["every state shall always keep up a well regulated and"]
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[940]
["ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATIONø1231.8¿"]
["disciplined militia, sufficiently armed and accoutred, and"]
["shall provide and constantly have ready for use, in public"]
["stores, a due number of field-pieces and tents, and a prop-"]
["er quantity of arms, ammunition and camp equipage."]
["No state shall engage in any war without the consent"]
["of the united states in congress assembled, unless such"]
["state be actually invaded by enemies, or shall have re-"]
["ceived certain advice of a resolution being formed by some"]
["nation of Indians to invade such state, and the danger"]
["is so imminent as not to admit of a delay, till the united"]
["states in congress assembled can be consulted: nor shall"]
["any state grant commissions to any ships or vessels of"]
["war, nor letters of marque or reprisal, except it be after"]
["a declaration of war by the united states in Congress"]
["assembled, and then only against the kingdom or state"]
["and the subjects thereof, against which war has been so"]
["declared, and under such regulations as shall be estab-"]
["lished by the united states in congress assembled, unless"]
["such state be infested by pirates, in which case vessels"]
["of war may be fitted out for that occasion, and kept so"]
["long as the danger shall continue, or until the united"]
["states in congress assembled shall determine otherwise."]
["1231.8 ARTICLE VII. When land-forces are raised by any state"]
["for the common defence, all officers of or under the rank"]
["of colonel, shall be appointed by the legislature of each"]
["state respectively by whom such forces shall be raised,"]
["or in such manner as such state shall direct, and all"]
["vacancies shall be filled up by the state which first made"]
["the appointment."]
["1231.9 ARTICLE VIII. All charges of war, and all other expences"]
["that shall be incurred for the common defence or general"]
["welfare, and allowed by the united states in congress as-"]
["sembled, shall be defrayed out of a common treasury,"]
["which shall be supplied by the several states, in propor-"]
["tion to the value of all land within each state, granted"]
["to or surveyed for any Person, as such land and the build-"]
["ings and improvements thereon shall be estimated accord-"]
["ing to such mode as the united states in congress assem-"]
["bled, shall from time to time direct and appoint."]
["The taxes for paying that proportion shall be laid and"]
["levied by the authority and direction of the legislatures"]
["of the several states within the time agreed upon by the"]
["united states in congress assembled."]
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[941]
["ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATION ø1231.10¿"]
["1231.10ARTICLE IX. The united states in congress assembled,"]
["shall have the sole and exclusive right and power of deter-"]
["mining on peace and war, except in the cases mentioned"]
["in the sixth article—of sending and receiving"]
["embassadors—entering into treaties and alliances, pro-"]
["vided that no treaty of commerce shall be made whereby"]
["the legislative power of the respective states shall be re-"]
["strained from imposing such imposts and duties on for-"]
["eigners, as their own people are subjected to, or from"]
["prohibiting the exportation or importation of any species"]
["of goods or commodities whatsoever—of establishing rules"]
["for deciding in all cases, what captures on land or water"]
["shall be legal, and in what manner prizes taken by land"]
["or naval forces in the service of the united states shall"]
["be divided or appropriated—of granting letters of marque"]
["and reprisal in times of peace—appointing courts for the"]
["trial of piracies and felonies committed on the high seas"]
["and establishing courts for receiving and determining fi-"]
["nally appeals in all cases of captures, provided that no"]
["member of congress shall be appointed a judge of any"]
["of the said courts."]
["The united states in congress assembled shall also be"]
["the last resort on appeal in all disputes and differences"]
["now subsisting or that hereafter may arise between two"]
["or more states concerning boundary, jurisdiction or any"]
["other cause whatever, which authority shall always be"]
["exercised in the manner following. Whenever the legisla-"]
["tive or executive authority or lawful agent of any state"]
["in controversy with another shall present a petition to"]
["congress stating the matter in question and praying for"]
["a hearing, notice thereof shall be given by order of con-"]
["gress to the legislative or executive authority of the other"]
["state in controversy, and a day assigned for the appear-"]
["ance of the parties by their lawful agents, who shall then"]
["be directed to appoint by joint consent, commissioners"]
["or judges to constitute a court for hearing and deter-"]
["mining the matter in question: but if they cannot agree,"]
["congress shall name three persons out of each of the"]
["united states, and from the list of such persons each party"]
["shall alternately strike out one, the petitioners beginning,"]
["until the number shall be reduced to thirteen; and from"]
["that number not less than seven, nor more than nine"]
["names as congress shall direct, shall in the presence of"]
["congress be drawn out by lot, and the persons whose"]
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[942]
["ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATIONø1231.10¿"]
["names shall be so drawn or any five of them, shall be"]
["commissioners or judges, to hear and finally determine"]
["the controversy, so always as a major part of the judges"]
["who shall hear the cause shall agree in the determination:"]
["and if either party shall neglect to attend at the day"]
["appointed, without showing reasons, which congress shall"]
["judge sufficient, or being present shall refuse to strike,"]
["the congress shall proceed to nominate three persons out"]
["of each State, and the secretary of congress shall strike"]
["in behalf of such party absent or refusing; and the judg-"]
["ment and sentence of the court to be appointed, in the"]
["manner before prescribed, shall be final and conclusive;"]
["and if any of the parties shall refuse to submit to the"]
["authority of such court, or to appear or defend their claim"]
["or cause, the court shall nevertheless proceed to pro-"]
["nounce sentence, or judgment, which shall in like manner"]
["be final and decisive, the judgment or sentence and other"]
["proceedings being in either case transmitted to congress,"]
["and lodged among the acts of congress for the security"]
["of the parties concerned: provided that every commis-"]
["sioner, before he sits in judgment, shall take an oath"]
["to be administered by one of the judges of the supreme"]
["or superior court of the state, where the cause shall be"]
["tried, ‘‘well and truly to hear and determine the matter"]
["in question, according to the best of his judgment without"]
["favour, affection or hope of reward’’: provided also that"]
["no state shall be deprived of territory for the benefit of"]
["the united states."]
["All controversies concerning the private right of soil"]
["claimed under different grants of two or more states,"]
["whose jurisdiction as they may respect such lands, and"]
["the states which passed such grants are adjusted, the"]
["said grants or either of them being at the same time"]
["claimed to have originated antecedent to such settlement"]
["of jurisdiction, shall on the petition of either party to"]
["the congress of the united states, be finally determined"]
["as near as may be in the same manner as is before pre-"]
["scribed for deciding disputes respecting territorial jurisdic-"]
["tion between different states."]
["The united states in congress assembled shall also have"]
["the sole and exclusive right and power of regulating the"]
["alloy and value of coin struck by their own authority,"]
["or by that of the respective states—fixing the standard"]
["of weights and measures throughout the united states—"]
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[943]
["ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATION ø1231.10¿"]
["regulating the trade and managing all affairs with the"]
["Indians, not members of any of the states, provided that"]
["the legislative right of any state within its own limits"]
["be not infringed or violated—establishing and regulating"]
["post-offices from one state to another, throughout all the"]
["united states, and exacting such postage on the papers"]
["passing thro’ the same as may be requisite to defray the"]
["expences of the said office—appointing all officers of the"]
["land forces, in the service of the united states, excepting"]
["regimental officers—appointing all the officers of the"]
["naval forces, and commissioning all officers whatever in"]
["the service of the united states—making rules for the"]
["government and regulation of the said land and naval"]
["forces, and directing their operations."]
["The united states in congress assembled shall have au-"]
["thority to appoint a committee, to sit in the recess of"]
["congress, to be denominated ‘‘A Committee of the States,’’"]
["and to consist of one delegate from each state; and to"]
["appoint such other committees and civil officers as may"]
["be necessary for managing the general affairs of the"]
["united states under their direction—to appoint one of their"]
["number to preside, provided that no person be allowed"]
["to serve in the office of president more than one year"]
["in any term of three years; to ascertain the necessary"]
["sums of Money to be raised for the service of the united"]
["states, and to appropriate and apply the same for defray-"]
["ing the public expences—to borrow money, or emit bills"]
["on the credit of the united states, transmitting every half"]
["year to the respective states an account of the sums of"]
["moneys so borrowed or emitted—to build and equip a"]
["navy—to agree upon the number of land forces, and to"]
["make requisition from each state for its quota, in propor-"]
["tion to the number of white inhabitants in such state;"]
["which requisitions shall be binding, and thereupon the"]
["legislature of each state shall appoint the regimental offi-"]
["cers, raise the men and cloath, arm and equip them in"]
["a soldier like manner, at the expence of the united states;"]
["and the officers and men so cloathed, armed and equipped"]
["shall march to the place appointed, and within the time"]
["agreed on by the united states in congress assembled:"]
["But if the united states in congress assembled shall, on"]
["consideration of circumstances judge proper that any state"]
["should not raise men, or should raise a smaller number"]
["than its quota, and that any other state should raise"]
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[944]
["ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATIONø1231.11¿"]
["a greater number of men than the quota thereof, such"]
["extra number shall be raised, officered, cloathed, armed"]
["and equipped in the same manner as the quota of such"]
["state, unless the legislature of such state shall judge that"]
["such extra number cannot be safely spared out of the"]
["same, in which case they shall raise, officer, cloath, arm"]
["and equip as many of such extra number as they judge"]
["can be safely spared. And the officers and men so"]
["cloathed, armed and equipped, shall march to the place"]
["appointed, and within the time agreed on by the united"]
["states in congress assembled."]
["The united states in congress assembled shall never"]
["engage in a war, nor grant letters of marque and reprisal"]
["in time of peace, nor enter into any treaties or alliances,"]
["nor coin money, nor regulate the value thereof, nor ascer-"]
["tain the sums and expences necessary for the defence"]
["and welfare of the united states, or any of them, nor"]
["emit bills, nor borrow money on the credit of the united"]
["states, nor appropriate money, nor agree upon the number"]
["of vessels of war, to be built or purchased, or the number"]
["of land or sea forces to be raised, nor appoint a com-"]
["mander-in-chief of the army or navy, unless nine states"]
["assent to the same; nor shall a question on any other"]
["point, except for adjourning from day to day be deter-"]
["mined, unless by the votes of a majority of the united"]
["states in congress assembled."]
["The Congress of the united states shall have power"]
["to adjourn to any time within the year, and to any place"]
["within the united states, so that no period of adjournment"]
["be for a longer duration than the space of six Months,"]
["and shall publish the Journal of their proceedings month-"]
["ly, except such parts thereof relating to treaties, alliances"]
["or military operations as in their judgment require se-"]
["crecy; and the yeas and nays of the delegates of each"]
["state on any question shall be entered on the Journal,"]
["when it is desired by any delegate; and the delegates"]
["of a state, or any of them, at his or their request shall"]
["be furnished with a transcript of the said Journal, except"]
["such parts as are above excepted, to lay before the legisla-"]
["tures of the several states."]
["1231.11 ARTICLE X. The committee of the states, or any nine"]
["of them, shall be authorized to execute, in the recess"]
["of congress such of the powers of congress as the united"]
["states in congress assembled, by the consent of nine"]
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[945]
["ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATION ø1231.15¿"]
["states, shall from time to time think expedient to vest"]
["them with; provided that no power be delegated to the"]
["said committee, for the exercise of which, by the articles"]
["of confederation, the voice of nine states in the congress"]
["of the united states assembled is requisite."]
["1231.12ARTICLE XI. Canada acceding to this confederation, and"]
["joining in the measures of the united states, shall be"]
["admitted into, and entitled to all the advantages of this"]
["union: but no other colony shall be admitted into the"]
["same, unless such admission be agreed to by nine states."]
["1231.13ARTICLE XII. All bills of credit emitted, monies borrowed"]
["and debts contracted by, or under the authority of con-"]
["gress, before the assembling of the united states, in pursu-"]
["ance of the present confederation, shall be deemed and"]
["considered as a charge against the united states, for pay-"]
["ment and satisfaction whereof the said united states, and"]
["the public faith are hereby solemnly pledged."]
["1231.14ARTICLE XIII. Every state shall abide by the determina-"]
["tions of the united states in congress assembled, on all"]
["questions which by this confederation are submitted to"]
["them. And the Articles of this confederation shall be invio-"]
["lably observed by every state, and the union shall be"]
["perpetual; nor shall any alteration at any time hereafter"]
["be made in any of them; unless such alteration be agreed"]
["to in a congress of the united states, and be afterward"]
["confirmed by the legislatures of every state."]
["1231.15AND WHEREAS it has pleased the Great Governor of"]
["the World to incline the hearts of the legislatures we"]
["respectively represent in congress, to approve of, and to"]
["authorize us to ratify the said articles of confederation"]
["and perpetual union. KNOW YE that we the undersigned"]
["delegates, by virtue of the power and authority to us"]
["given for that purpose, do by these presents, in the name"]
["and in behalf of our respective constituents, fully and"]
["entirely ratify and confirm each and every of the said"]
["articles of confederation and perpetual union, and all and"]
["singular the matters and things therein contained: And"]
["we do further solemnly plight and engage the faith of"]
["our respective constituents, that they shall abide by the"]
["determinations of the united states in congress assembled,"]
["on all questions, which by the said confederation are sub-"]
["mitted to them. And that the articles thereof shall be"]
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[946]
["ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATIONø1231.16¿"]
["inviolably observed by the states we respectively represent"]
["and that the union shall be perpetual."]
["1231.16 IN WITNESS whereof we have hereunto set our hands"]
["in Congress. DONE at Philadelphia in the state of Penn-"]
["sylvania the ninth Day of July in the Year of our Lord"]
["one Thousand seven Hundred and Seventy-eight, and in"]
["the third year of the independence of America."]
["On the part and behalf of the State of New Hampshire."]
["JOSIAH BARTLETT, J OHN WENTWORTH, JUNR."]
["A UGUST 8, 1778."]
["On the part and behalf of the State of Massachusetts Bay."]
["JOHN HANCOCK,"]
["S AMUEL ADAMS,"]
["E LBRIDGE G ERRY,"]
["F RANCIS DANA,"]
["J AMES LOVELL ,"]
["S AMUEL HOLTEN."]
["On the part and in behalf of the State of Rhode Island and Providence"]
["Plantations."]
["W ILLIAM ELLERY,"]
["H ENRY MARCHANT,"]
["J OHN COLLINS."]
["On the part and behalf of the State of Connecticut."]
["R OGER SHERMAN,"]
["S AMUEL HUNTINGTON,"]
["O LIVER WOLCOTT ,"]
["T ITUS HOSMER ,"]
["A NDREW ADAMS ."]
["On the part and behalf of the State of New York."]
["J AS DUANE,"]
["F RAS LEWIS,"]
["WILLIAM DUER,"]
["G OUVR MORRIS ."]
["On the part and in behalf of the State of New Jersey."]
["J NO WITHERSPOON, N ATHL SCUDDER, NOV . 26,"]
[1778]
["On the part and behalf of the State of Pennsylvania."]
["ROBT. MORRIS,"]
["D ANIEL ROBERDEAU,"]
["J ONA BAYARD SMITH ,"]
["W ILLIAM CLINGAN,"]
["J OSEPH REED , JULY 22, 1778."]
["On the part and behalf of the State of Delaware."]
["J OHN DICKINSON, MAY 5, 1779,"]
["NICHOLAS VAN DYKE,"]
["T HO. M’KEAN, FEB . 12, 1779."]
["On the part and behalf of the State of Maryland."]
["JOHN HANSON, MARCH 1, 1781, DANIEL CARROL DO"]
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[947]
["ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATION ø1231.16¿"]
["On the part and behalf of the State of Virginia."]
["RICHARD HENRY LEE,"]
["J OHN BANISTER,"]
["T HOMAS ADAMS ,"]
["J NO HARVIE ,"]
["F RANCIS LIGHTFOOT LEE ."]
["On the part and behalf of the State of North Carolina."]
["J OHN PENN, JULY 21, 1778,"]
["C ORNS. HARNETT,"]
["J NO WILLIAMS."]
["On the part and behalf of the State of South Carolina."]
["H ENRY LAURENS,"]
["W ILLIAM HENRY DRAYTON,"]
["JNO MATHEWS,"]
["R ICHARD HUTSON,"]
["T HOS. HEYWARD , JUNR."]
["On the part and behalf of the State of Georgia."]
["JNO WALTON, 24th JULY 1778,"]
["EDWD TELFAIR,"]
["E DWD . LANGWORTHY ."]
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[935]
["[1231]"]
["ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATION"]
["HISTORICAL BACKGROUND"]
["While the Declaration of Independence was under consideration in"]
["the Continental Congress, and before it was finally agreed upon, meas-"]
["ures were taken for the establishment of a constitutional form of govern-"]
["ment; and on the 11th of June, 1776, it was ‘‘Resolved, That a committee"]
["be appointed to prepare and digest the form of a confederation to be"]
["entered into between these Colonies’’; which committee was appointed"]
["the next day, June 12, and consisted of a member from each Colony,"]
["namely: Mr. Bartlett, Mr. S. Adams, Mr. Hopkins, Mr. Sherman, Mr."]
["R. R. Livingston, Mr. Dickinson, Mr. McKean, Mr. Stone, Mr. Nelson,"]
["Mr. Hewes, Mr. E. Rutledge, and Mr. Gwinnett. On the 12th of July,"]
["1776, the committee reported a draft of the Articles of Confederation,"]
["which was printed for the use of the members under the strictest injunc-"]
["tions of secrecy."]
["This report underwent a thorough discussion in Congress, from time"]
["to time, until the 15th of November, 1777; on which day, ‘‘Articles"]
["of Confederation and Perpetual Union’’ were finally agreed to in form,"]
["and they were directed to be proposed to the legislatures of all the"]
["United States, and if approved by them, they were advised to authorize"]
["their delegates to ratify the same in the Congress of the United States;"]
["and in that event they were to become conclusive. On the 17th of Novem-"]
["ber, 1777, the Congress agreed upon the form of a circular letter to"]
["accompany the Articles of Confederation, which concluded with a rec-"]
["ommendation to each of the several legislatures ‘‘to invest its delegates"]
["with competent powers, ultimately, and in the name and behalf of the"]
["State, to subscribe articles of confederation and perpetual union of the"]
["United States, and to attend Congress for that purpose on or before"]
["the 10th day of March next.’’ This letter was signed by the President"]
["of Congress and sent, with a copy of the articles, to each State legisla-"]
["ture."]
["On the 26th of June, 1778, Congress agreed upon the form of a"]
["ratification of the Articles of Confederation, and directed a copy of the"]
["articles and the ratification to be engrossed on parchment; which, on"]
["the 9th of July, 1778, having been examined and the blanks filled,"]
["was signed by the delegates of New Hampshire, Massachusetts Bay,"]
["Rhode Island and Providence Plantations, Connecticut, New York, Penn-"]
["sylvania, Virginia, and South Carolina. Congress then directed that a"]
["circular letter be addressed to the States whose delegates were not"]
["present, or being present, conceived they were not authorized to sign"]
["the ratification, informing them how many and what States had ratified"]
["the Articles of Confederation, and desiring them, with all convenient"]
["dispatch, to authorize their delegates to ratify the same. Of these States,"]
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[936]
["ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATIONø1231¿"]
["North Carolina ratified on the 21st and Georgia on the 24th of July,"]
["1778; New Jersey on the 26th of November following; Delaware on"]
["the 5th of May, 1779; Maryland on the 1st of March, 1781; and on"]
["the 2d of March, 1781, Congress assembled under the new form of"]
["government."]
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[937]
["1 Adopted by the Continental Congress on November 15, 1777, while meeting"]
["at York, Pennsylvania, which served as the site of the National Capital from"]
["September 30, 1777, to June 27, 1778. Ratification of the Articles by the respective"]
["delegates commenced on July 9, 1778, in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, but was"]
["not completed until March 1, 1781, when the Articles were signed by the delegates"]
["from Maryland."]
["ø1231¿"]
["ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATION 1"]
["1231.1ACT OF CONFEDERATION OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA"]
["TO ALL TO WHOM THESE PRESENTS SHALL COME, WE THE"]
["UNDERSIGNED DELEGATES OF THE STATES AFFIXED TO"]
["OUR NAMES, SEND GREETINGS"]
["Whereas the Delegates of the United States of America"]
["in Congress assembled did on the 15th day of November"]
["in the Year of our Lord One Thousand Seven Hundred"]
["and Seventy seven, and in the Second Year of the Inde-"]
["pendence of America agree to certain articles of Confed-"]
["eration and perpetual Union between the states of"]
["Newhampshire, Massachusetts-bay, Rhodeisland and"]
["Providence Plantations, Connecticut, New York, New Jer-"]
["sey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, North"]
["Carolina, South Carolina and Georgia in the Words fol-"]
["lowing, viz."]
["‘‘ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATION AND PERPETUAL UNION BE-"]
["TWEEN THE STATES OF NEWHAMPSHIRE, MASSACHUSETTS-"]
["BAY, RHODEISLAND AND PROVIDENCE PLANTATIONS, CON-"]
["NECTICUT, NEW YORK, NEW JERSEY, PENNSYLVANIA, DELA-"]
["WARE, MARYLAND, VIRGINIA, NORTH CAROLINA, SOUTH"]
["CAROLINA AND GEORGIA"]
["1231.2ARTICLE I. The Stile of this confederacy shall be ‘‘The"]
["United States of America.’’"]
["1231.3ARTICLE II. Each State retains its Sovereignty, freedom"]
["and independence, and every Power, Jurisdiction and"]
["right, which is not by this confederation expressly dele-"]
["gated to the United States in Congress assembled."]
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[938]
["ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATIONø1231.4¿"]
["1231.4 ARTICLE III. The said states hereby severally enter into"]
["a firm league of friendship with each other, for their com-"]
["mon defence, the security of their Liberties, and their"]
["mutual and general welfare, binding themselves to assist"]
["each other, against all force offered to, or attacks made"]
["upon them, or any of them, on account of religion, sov-"]
["ereignty, trade, or any other pretence whatever."]
["1231.5 ARTICLE IV. The better to secure and perpetuate mutual"]
["friendship and intercourse among the people of the dif-"]
["ferent states in this union, the free inhabitants of each"]
["of these states, paupers, vagabonds and fugitives from"]
["Justice excepted, shall be entitled to all privileges and"]
["immunities of free citizens in the several states, and the"]
["people of each state shall have free ingress and regress"]
["to and from any other state, and shall enjoy therein all"]
["the privileges of trade and commerce, subject to the same"]
["duties, impositions and restrictions as the inhabitants"]
["thereof respectively, provided that such restrictions shall"]
["not extend so far as to prevent the removal of property"]
["imported into any state, to any other state of which the"]
["Owner is an inhabitant, provided also that no imposition,"]
["duties or restriction shall be laid by any state, on the"]
["property of the united states, or either of them."]
["If any Person guilty of, or charged with treason, felony"]
["or other high misdemeanor in any state, shall flee from"]
["Justice, and be found in any of the united states, he"]
["shall upon demand of the Governor or executive power,"]
["of the state from which he fled, be delivered up and re-"]
["moved to the state having jurisdiction of his offence."]
["Full faith and credit shall be given in each of these"]
["states to the records, acts and judicial proceedings of the"]
["courts and magistrates of every other state."]
["1231.6 ARTICLE V. For the more convenient management of"]
["the general interest of the united states, delegates shall"]
["be annually appointed in such manner as the legislature"]
["of each state shall direct, to meet in Congress on the"]
["first Monday in November, in every year, with a power"]
["reserved to each state, to recall its delegates, or any of"]
["them, at any time within the year, and to send others"]
["in their stead, for the remainder of the Year."]
["No state shall be represented in Congress by less than"]
["two, nor by more than seven Members; and no person"]
["shall be capable of being a delegate for more than three"]
["years in any term of six years; nor shall any person,"]
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[939]
["ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATION ø1231.7¿"]
["being a delegate, be capable of holding any office under"]
["the united states, for which he, or another for his benefit"]
["receives any salary, fees or emolument of any kind."]
["Each state shall maintain its own delegates in a meet-"]
["ing of the states, and while they act as members of the"]
["committee of the states."]
["In determining questions in the united states, in Con-"]
["gress assembled, each state shall have one vote."]
["Freedom of speech and debate in Congress shall not"]
["be impeached or questioned in any Court, or place out"]
["of Congress, and the members of congress shall be pro-"]
["tected in their persons from arrests and imprisonments,"]
["during the time of their going to and from, and attendance"]
["on congress, except for treason, felony, or breach of the"]
["peace."]
["1231.7ARTICLE VI. No state without the Consent of the united"]
["states in congress assembled, shall send any embassy to,"]
["or receive any embassy from, or enter into any conference,"]
["agreement, alliance or treaty with any King, prince or"]
["state; nor shall any person holding any office of profit"]
["or trust under the united states, or any of them, accept"]
["of any present, emolument, office or title of any kind"]
["whatever from any king, prince or foreign state; nor shall"]
["the united states in congress assembled, or any of them,"]
["grant any title of nobility."]
["No two or more states shall enter into any treaty, con-"]
["federation or alliance whatever between them, without"]
["the consent of the united states in congress assembled,"]
["specifying accurately the purposes for which the same"]
["is to be entered into, and how long it shall continue."]
["No state shall lay any imposts of duties, which may"]
["interfere with any stipulations in treaties, entered into"]
["by the united states in congress assembled with any king,"]
["prince or state, in pursuance of any treaties already pro-"]
["posed by congress to the courts of France and Spain."]
["No vessels of war shall be kept up in time of peace"]
["by any state, except such number only, as shall be deemed"]
["necessary by the united states in congress assembled, for"]
["the defence of such state, or its trade; nor shall any body"]
["of forces be kept up by any state, in time of peace, except"]
["such number only, as in the judgment of the united states,"]
["in congress assembled, shall be deemed requisite to garri-"]
["son the forts necessary for the defence of such state; but"]
["every state shall always keep up a well regulated and"]
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[940]
["ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATIONø1231.8¿"]
["disciplined militia, sufficiently armed and accoutred, and"]
["shall provide and constantly have ready for use, in public"]
["stores, a due number of field-pieces and tents, and a prop-"]
["er quantity of arms, ammunition and camp equipage."]
["No state shall engage in any war without the consent"]
["of the united states in congress assembled, unless such"]
["state be actually invaded by enemies, or shall have re-"]
["ceived certain advice of a resolution being formed by some"]
["nation of Indians to invade such state, and the danger"]
["is so imminent as not to admit of a delay, till the united"]
["states in congress assembled can be consulted: nor shall"]
["any state grant commissions to any ships or vessels of"]
["war, nor letters of marque or reprisal, except it be after"]
["a declaration of war by the united states in Congress"]
["assembled, and then only against the kingdom or state"]
["and the subjects thereof, against which war has been so"]
["declared, and under such regulations as shall be estab-"]
["lished by the united states in congress assembled, unless"]
["such state be infested by pirates, in which case vessels"]
["of war may be fitted out for that occasion, and kept so"]
["long as the danger shall continue, or until the united"]
["states in congress assembled shall determine otherwise."]
["1231.8 ARTICLE VII. When land-forces are raised by any state"]
["for the common defence, all officers of or under the rank"]
["of colonel, shall be appointed by the legislature of each"]
["state respectively by whom such forces shall be raised,"]
["or in such manner as such state shall direct, and all"]
["vacancies shall be filled up by the state which first made"]
["the appointment."]
["1231.9 ARTICLE VIII. All charges of war, and all other expences"]
["that shall be incurred for the common defence or general"]
["welfare, and allowed by the united states in congress as-"]
["sembled, shall be defrayed out of a common treasury,"]
["which shall be supplied by the several states, in propor-"]
["tion to the value of all land within each state, granted"]
["to or surveyed for any Person, as such land and the build-"]
["ings and improvements thereon shall be estimated accord-"]
["ing to such mode as the united states in congress assem-"]
["bled, shall from time to time direct and appoint."]
["The taxes for paying that proportion shall be laid and"]
["levied by the authority and direction of the legislatures"]
["of the several states within the time agreed upon by the"]
["united states in congress assembled."]
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[941]
["ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATION ø1231.10¿"]
["1231.10ARTICLE IX. The united states in congress assembled,"]
["shall have the sole and exclusive right and power of deter-"]
["mining on peace and war, except in the cases mentioned"]
["in the sixth article—of sending and receiving"]
["embassadors—entering into treaties and alliances, pro-"]
["vided that no treaty of commerce shall be made whereby"]
["the legislative power of the respective states shall be re-"]
["strained from imposing such imposts and duties on for-"]
["eigners, as their own people are subjected to, or from"]
["prohibiting the exportation or importation of any species"]
["of goods or commodities whatsoever—of establishing rules"]
["for deciding in all cases, what captures on land or water"]
["shall be legal, and in what manner prizes taken by land"]
["or naval forces in the service of the united states shall"]
["be divided or appropriated—of granting letters of marque"]
["and reprisal in times of peace—appointing courts for the"]
["trial of piracies and felonies committed on the high seas"]
["and establishing courts for receiving and determining fi-"]
["nally appeals in all cases of captures, provided that no"]
["member of congress shall be appointed a judge of any"]
["of the said courts."]
["The united states in congress assembled shall also be"]
["the last resort on appeal in all disputes and differences"]
["now subsisting or that hereafter may arise between two"]
["or more states concerning boundary, jurisdiction or any"]
["other cause whatever, which authority shall always be"]
["exercised in the manner following. Whenever the legisla-"]
["tive or executive authority or lawful agent of any state"]
["in controversy with another shall present a petition to"]
["congress stating the matter in question and praying for"]
["a hearing, notice thereof shall be given by order of con-"]
["gress to the legislative or executive authority of the other"]
["state in controversy, and a day assigned for the appear-"]
["ance of the parties by their lawful agents, who shall then"]
["be directed to appoint by joint consent, commissioners"]
["or judges to constitute a court for hearing and deter-"]
["mining the matter in question: but if they cannot agree,"]
["congress shall name three persons out of each of the"]
["united states, and from the list of such persons each party"]
["shall alternately strike out one, the petitioners beginning,"]
["until the number shall be reduced to thirteen; and from"]
["that number not less than seven, nor more than nine"]
["names as congress shall direct, shall in the presence of"]
["congress be drawn out by lot, and the persons whose"]
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[942]
["ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATIONø1231.10¿"]
["names shall be so drawn or any five of them, shall be"]
["commissioners or judges, to hear and finally determine"]
["the controversy, so always as a major part of the judges"]
["who shall hear the cause shall agree in the determination:"]
["and if either party shall neglect to attend at the day"]
["appointed, without showing reasons, which congress shall"]
["judge sufficient, or being present shall refuse to strike,"]
["the congress shall proceed to nominate three persons out"]
["of each State, and the secretary of congress shall strike"]
["in behalf of such party absent or refusing; and the judg-"]
["ment and sentence of the court to be appointed, in the"]
["manner before prescribed, shall be final and conclusive;"]
["and if any of the parties shall refuse to submit to the"]
["authority of such court, or to appear or defend their claim"]
["or cause, the court shall nevertheless proceed to pro-"]
["nounce sentence, or judgment, which shall in like manner"]
["be final and decisive, the judgment or sentence and other"]
["proceedings being in either case transmitted to congress,"]
["and lodged among the acts of congress for the security"]
["of the parties concerned: provided that every commis-"]
["sioner, before he sits in judgment, shall take an oath"]
["to be administered by one of the judges of the supreme"]
["or superior court of the state, where the cause shall be"]
["tried, ‘‘well and truly to hear and determine the matter"]
["in question, according to the best of his judgment without"]
["favour, affection or hope of reward’’: provided also that"]
["no state shall be deprived of territory for the benefit of"]
["the united states."]
["All controversies concerning the private right of soil"]
["claimed under different grants of two or more states,"]
["whose jurisdiction as they may respect such lands, and"]
["the states which passed such grants are adjusted, the"]
["said grants or either of them being at the same time"]
["claimed to have originated antecedent to such settlement"]
["of jurisdiction, shall on the petition of either party to"]
["the congress of the united states, be finally determined"]
["as near as may be in the same manner as is before pre-"]
["scribed for deciding disputes respecting territorial jurisdic-"]
["tion between different states."]
["The united states in congress assembled shall also have"]
["the sole and exclusive right and power of regulating the"]
["alloy and value of coin struck by their own authority,"]
["or by that of the respective states—fixing the standard"]
["of weights and measures throughout the united states—"]
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[943]
["ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATION ø1231.10¿"]
["regulating the trade and managing all affairs with the"]
["Indians, not members of any of the states, provided that"]
["the legislative right of any state within its own limits"]
["be not infringed or violated—establishing and regulating"]
["post-offices from one state to another, throughout all the"]
["united states, and exacting such postage on the papers"]
["passing thro’ the same as may be requisite to defray the"]
["expences of the said office—appointing all officers of the"]
["land forces, in the service of the united states, excepting"]
["regimental officers—appointing all the officers of the"]
["naval forces, and commissioning all officers whatever in"]
["the service of the united states—making rules for the"]
["government and regulation of the said land and naval"]
["forces, and directing their operations."]
["The united states in congress assembled shall have au-"]
["thority to appoint a committee, to sit in the recess of"]
["congress, to be denominated ‘‘A Committee of the States,’’"]
["and to consist of one delegate from each state; and to"]
["appoint such other committees and civil officers as may"]
["be necessary for managing the general affairs of the"]
["united states under their direction—to appoint one of their"]
["number to preside, provided that no person be allowed"]
["to serve in the office of president more than one year"]
["in any term of three years; to ascertain the necessary"]
["sums of Money to be raised for the service of the united"]
["states, and to appropriate and apply the same for defray-"]
["ing the public expences—to borrow money, or emit bills"]
["on the credit of the united states, transmitting every half"]
["year to the respective states an account of the sums of"]
["moneys so borrowed or emitted—to build and equip a"]
["navy—to agree upon the number of land forces, and to"]
["make requisition from each state for its quota, in propor-"]
["tion to the number of white inhabitants in such state;"]
["which requisitions shall be binding, and thereupon the"]
["legislature of each state shall appoint the regimental offi-"]
["cers, raise the men and cloath, arm and equip them in"]
["a soldier like manner, at the expence of the united states;"]
["and the officers and men so cloathed, armed and equipped"]
["shall march to the place appointed, and within the time"]
["agreed on by the united states in congress assembled:"]
["But if the united states in congress assembled shall, on"]
["consideration of circumstances judge proper that any state"]
["should not raise men, or should raise a smaller number"]
["than its quota, and that any other state should raise"]
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[944]
["ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATIONø1231.11¿"]
["a greater number of men than the quota thereof, such"]
["extra number shall be raised, officered, cloathed, armed"]
["and equipped in the same manner as the quota of such"]
["state, unless the legislature of such state shall judge that"]
["such extra number cannot be safely spared out of the"]
["same, in which case they shall raise, officer, cloath, arm"]
["and equip as many of such extra number as they judge"]
["can be safely spared. And the officers and men so"]
["cloathed, armed and equipped, shall march to the place"]
["appointed, and within the time agreed on by the united"]
["states in congress assembled."]
["The united states in congress assembled shall never"]
["engage in a war, nor grant letters of marque and reprisal"]
["in time of peace, nor enter into any treaties or alliances,"]
["nor coin money, nor regulate the value thereof, nor ascer-"]
["tain the sums and expences necessary for the defence"]
["and welfare of the united states, or any of them, nor"]
["emit bills, nor borrow money on the credit of the united"]
["states, nor appropriate money, nor agree upon the number"]
["of vessels of war, to be built or purchased, or the number"]
["of land or sea forces to be raised, nor appoint a com-"]
["mander-in-chief of the army or navy, unless nine states"]
["assent to the same; nor shall a question on any other"]
["point, except for adjourning from day to day be deter-"]
["mined, unless by the votes of a majority of the united"]
["states in congress assembled."]
["The Congress of the united states shall have power"]
["to adjourn to any time within the year, and to any place"]
["within the united states, so that no period of adjournment"]
["be for a longer duration than the space of six Months,"]
["and shall publish the Journal of their proceedings month-"]
["ly, except such parts thereof relating to treaties, alliances"]
["or military operations as in their judgment require se-"]
["crecy; and the yeas and nays of the delegates of each"]
["state on any question shall be entered on the Journal,"]
["when it is desired by any delegate; and the delegates"]
["of a state, or any of them, at his or their request shall"]
["be furnished with a transcript of the said Journal, except"]
["such parts as are above excepted, to lay before the legisla-"]
["tures of the several states."]
["1231.11 ARTICLE X. The committee of the states, or any nine"]
["of them, shall be authorized to execute, in the recess"]
["of congress such of the powers of congress as the united"]
["states in congress assembled, by the consent of nine"]
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[945]
["ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATION ø1231.15¿"]
["states, shall from time to time think expedient to vest"]
["them with; provided that no power be delegated to the"]
["said committee, for the exercise of which, by the articles"]
["of confederation, the voice of nine states in the congress"]
["of the united states assembled is requisite."]
["1231.12ARTICLE XI. Canada acceding to this confederation, and"]
["joining in the measures of the united states, shall be"]
["admitted into, and entitled to all the advantages of this"]
["union: but no other colony shall be admitted into the"]
["same, unless such admission be agreed to by nine states."]
["1231.13ARTICLE XII. All bills of credit emitted, monies borrowed"]
["and debts contracted by, or under the authority of con-"]
["gress, before the assembling of the united states, in pursu-"]
["ance of the present confederation, shall be deemed and"]
["considered as a charge against the united states, for pay-"]
["ment and satisfaction whereof the said united states, and"]
["the public faith are hereby solemnly pledged."]
["1231.14ARTICLE XIII. Every state shall abide by the determina-"]
["tions of the united states in congress assembled, on all"]
["questions which by this confederation are submitted to"]
["them. And the Articles of this confederation shall be invio-"]
["lably observed by every state, and the union shall be"]
["perpetual; nor shall any alteration at any time hereafter"]
["be made in any of them; unless such alteration be agreed"]
["to in a congress of the united states, and be afterward"]
["confirmed by the legislatures of every state."]
["1231.15AND WHEREAS it has pleased the Great Governor of"]
["the World to incline the hearts of the legislatures we"]
["respectively represent in congress, to approve of, and to"]
["authorize us to ratify the said articles of confederation"]
["and perpetual union. KNOW YE that we the undersigned"]
["delegates, by virtue of the power and authority to us"]
["given for that purpose, do by these presents, in the name"]
["and in behalf of our respective constituents, fully and"]
["entirely ratify and confirm each and every of the said"]
["articles of confederation and perpetual union, and all and"]
["singular the matters and things therein contained: And"]
["we do further solemnly plight and engage the faith of"]
["our respective constituents, that they shall abide by the"]
["determinations of the united states in congress assembled,"]
["on all questions, which by the said confederation are sub-"]
["mitted to them. And that the articles thereof shall be"]
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[946]
["ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATIONø1231.16¿"]
["inviolably observed by the states we respectively represent"]
["and that the union shall be perpetual."]
["1231.16 IN WITNESS whereof we have hereunto set our hands"]
["in Congress. DONE at Philadelphia in the state of Penn-"]
["sylvania the ninth Day of July in the Year of our Lord"]
["one Thousand seven Hundred and Seventy-eight, and in"]
["the third year of the independence of America."]
["On the part and behalf of the State of New Hampshire."]
["JOSIAH BARTLETT, J OHN WENTWORTH, JUNR."]
["A UGUST 8, 1778."]
["On the part and behalf of the State of Massachusetts Bay."]
["JOHN HANCOCK,"]
["S AMUEL ADAMS,"]
["E LBRIDGE G ERRY,"]
["F RANCIS DANA,"]
["J AMES LOVELL ,"]
["S AMUEL HOLTEN."]
["On the part and in behalf of the State of Rhode Island and Providence"]
["Plantations."]
["W ILLIAM ELLERY,"]
["H ENRY MARCHANT,"]
["J OHN COLLINS."]
["On the part and behalf of the State of Connecticut."]
["R OGER SHERMAN,"]
["S AMUEL HUNTINGTON,"]
["O LIVER WOLCOTT ,"]
["T ITUS HOSMER ,"]
["A NDREW ADAMS ."]
["On the part and behalf of the State of New York."]
["J AS DUANE,"]
["F RAS LEWIS,"]
["WILLIAM DUER,"]
["G OUVR MORRIS ."]
["On the part and in behalf of the State of New Jersey."]
["J NO WITHERSPOON, N ATHL SCUDDER, NOV . 26,"]
[1778]
["On the part and behalf of the State of Pennsylvania."]
["ROBT. MORRIS,"]
["D ANIEL ROBERDEAU,"]
["J ONA BAYARD SMITH ,"]
["W ILLIAM CLINGAN,"]
["J OSEPH REED , JULY 22, 1778."]
["On the part and behalf of the State of Delaware."]
["J OHN DICKINSON, MAY 5, 1779,"]
["NICHOLAS VAN DYKE,"]
["T HO. M’KEAN, FEB . 12, 1779."]
["On the part and behalf of the State of Maryland."]
["JOHN HANSON, MARCH 1, 1781, DANIEL CARROL DO"]
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[947]
["ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATION ø1231.16¿"]
["On the part and behalf of the State of Virginia."]
["RICHARD HENRY LEE,"]
["J OHN BANISTER,"]
["T HOMAS ADAMS ,"]
["J NO HARVIE ,"]
["F RANCIS LIGHTFOOT LEE ."]
["On the part and behalf of the State of North Carolina."]
["J OHN PENN, JULY 21, 1778,"]
["C ORNS. HARNETT,"]
["J NO WILLIAMS."]
["On the part and behalf of the State of South Carolina."]
["H ENRY LAURENS,"]
["W ILLIAM HENRY DRAYTON,"]
["JNO MATHEWS,"]
["R ICHARD HUTSON,"]
["T HOS. HEYWARD , JUNR."]
["On the part and behalf of the State of Georgia."]
["JNO WALTON, 24th JULY 1778,"]
["EDWD TELFAIR,"]
["E DWD . LANGWORTHY ."]
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[935]
["[1231]"]
["ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATION"]
["HISTORICAL BACKGROUND"]
["While the Declaration of Independence was under consideration in"]
["the Continental Congress, and before it was finally agreed upon, meas-"]
["ures were taken for the establishment of a constitutional form of govern-"]
["ment; and on the 11th of June, 1776, it was ‘‘Resolved, That a committee"]
["be appointed to prepare and digest the form of a confederation to be"]
["entered into between these Colonies’’; which committee was appointed"]
["the next day, June 12, and consisted of a member from each Colony,"]
["namely: Mr. Bartlett, Mr. S. Adams, Mr. Hopkins, Mr. Sherman, Mr."]
["R. R. Livingston, Mr. Dickinson, Mr. McKean, Mr. Stone, Mr. Nelson,"]
["Mr. Hewes, Mr. E. Rutledge, and Mr. Gwinnett. On the 12th of July,"]
["1776, the committee reported a draft of the Articles of Confederation,"]
["which was printed for the use of the members under the strictest injunc-"]
["tions of secrecy."]
["This report underwent a thorough discussion in Congress, from time"]
["to time, until the 15th of November, 1777; on which day, ‘‘Articles"]
["of Confederation and Perpetual Union’’ were finally agreed to in form,"]
["and they were directed to be proposed to the legislatures of all the"]
["United States, and if approved by them, they were advised to authorize"]
["their delegates to ratify the same in the Congress of the United States;"]
["and in that event they were to become conclusive. On the 17th of Novem-"]
["ber, 1777, the Congress agreed upon the form of a circular letter to"]
["accompany the Articles of Confederation, which concluded with a rec-"]
["ommendation to each of the several legislatures ‘‘to invest its delegates"]
["with competent powers, ultimately, and in the name and behalf of the"]
["State, to subscribe articles of confederation and perpetual union of the"]
["United States, and to attend Congress for that purpose on or before"]
["the 10th day of March next.’’ This letter was signed by the President"]
["of Congress and sent, with a copy of the articles, to each State legisla-"]
["ture."]
["On the 26th of June, 1778, Congress agreed upon the form of a"]
["ratification of the Articles of Confederation, and directed a copy of the"]
["articles and the ratification to be engrossed on parchment; which, on"]
["the 9th of July, 1778, having been examined and the blanks filled,"]
["was signed by the delegates of New Hampshire, Massachusetts Bay,"]
["Rhode Island and Providence Plantations, Connecticut, New York, Penn-"]
["sylvania, Virginia, and South Carolina. Congress then directed that a"]
["circular letter be addressed to the States whose delegates were not"]
["present, or being present, conceived they were not authorized to sign"]
["the ratification, informing them how many and what States had ratified"]
["the Articles of Confederation, and desiring them, with all convenient"]
["dispatch, to authorize their delegates to ratify the same. Of these States,"]
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[936]
["ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATIONø1231¿"]
["North Carolina ratified on the 21st and Georgia on the 24th of July,"]
["1778; New Jersey on the 26th of November following; Delaware on"]
["the 5th of May, 1779; Maryland on the 1st of March, 1781; and on"]
["the 2d of March, 1781, Congress assembled under the new form of"]
["government."]
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[937]
["1 Adopted by the Continental Congress on November 15, 1777, while meeting"]
["at York, Pennsylvania, which served as the site of the National Capital from"]
["September 30, 1777, to June 27, 1778. Ratification of the Articles by the respective"]
["delegates commenced on July 9, 1778, in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, but was"]
["not completed until March 1, 1781, when the Articles were signed by the delegates"]
["from Maryland."]
["ø1231¿"]
["ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATION 1"]
["1231.1ACT OF CONFEDERATION OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA"]
["TO ALL TO WHOM THESE PRESENTS SHALL COME, WE THE"]
["UNDERSIGNED DELEGATES OF THE STATES AFFIXED TO"]
["OUR NAMES, SEND GREETINGS"]
["Whereas the Delegates of the United States of America"]
["in Congress assembled did on the 15th day of November"]
["in the Year of our Lord One Thousand Seven Hundred"]
["and Seventy seven, and in the Second Year of the Inde-"]
["pendence of America agree to certain articles of Confed-"]
["eration and perpetual Union between the states of"]
["Newhampshire, Massachusetts-bay, Rhodeisland and"]
["Providence Plantations, Connecticut, New York, New Jer-"]
["sey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, North"]
["Carolina, South Carolina and Georgia in the Words fol-"]
["lowing, viz."]
["‘‘ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATION AND PERPETUAL UNION BE-"]
["TWEEN THE STATES OF NEWHAMPSHIRE, MASSACHUSETTS-"]
["BAY, RHODEISLAND AND PROVIDENCE PLANTATIONS, CON-"]
["NECTICUT, NEW YORK, NEW JERSEY, PENNSYLVANIA, DELA-"]
["WARE, MARYLAND, VIRGINIA, NORTH CAROLINA, SOUTH"]
["CAROLINA AND GEORGIA"]
["1231.2ARTICLE I. The Stile of this confederacy shall be ‘‘The"]
["United States of America.’’"]
["1231.3ARTICLE II. Each State retains its Sovereignty, freedom"]
["and independence, and every Power, Jurisdiction and"]
["right, which is not by this confederation expressly dele-"]
["gated to the United States in Congress assembled."]
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[938]
["ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATIONø1231.4¿"]
["1231.4 ARTICLE III. The said states hereby severally enter into"]
["a firm league of friendship with each other, for their com-"]
["mon defence, the security of their Liberties, and their"]
["mutual and general welfare, binding themselves to assist"]
["each other, against all force offered to, or attacks made"]
["upon them, or any of them, on account of religion, sov-"]
["ereignty, trade, or any other pretence whatever."]
["1231.5 ARTICLE IV. The better to secure and perpetuate mutual"]
["friendship and intercourse among the people of the dif-"]
["ferent states in this union, the free inhabitants of each"]
["of these states, paupers, vagabonds and fugitives from"]
["Justice excepted, shall be entitled to all privileges and"]
["immunities of free citizens in the several states, and the"]
["people of each state shall have free ingress and regress"]
["to and from any other state, and shall enjoy therein all"]
["the privileges of trade and commerce, subject to the same"]
["duties, impositions and restrictions as the inhabitants"]
["thereof respectively, provided that such restrictions shall"]
["not extend so far as to prevent the removal of property"]
["imported into any state, to any other state of which the"]
["Owner is an inhabitant, provided also that no imposition,"]
["duties or restriction shall be laid by any state, on the"]
["property of the united states, or either of them."]
["If any Person guilty of, or charged with treason, felony"]
["or other high misdemeanor in any state, shall flee from"]
["Justice, and be found in any of the united states, he"]
["shall upon demand of the Governor or executive power,"]
["of the state from which he fled, be delivered up and re-"]
["moved to the state having jurisdiction of his offence."]
["Full faith and credit shall be given in each of these"]
["states to the records, acts and judicial proceedings of the"]
["courts and magistrates of every other state."]
["1231.6 ARTICLE V. For the more convenient management of"]
["the general interest of the united states, delegates shall"]
["be annually appointed in such manner as the legislature"]
["of each state shall direct, to meet in Congress on the"]
["first Monday in November, in every year, with a power"]
["reserved to each state, to recall its delegates, or any of"]
["them, at any time within the year, and to send others"]
["in their stead, for the remainder of the Year."]
["No state shall be represented in Congress by less than"]
["two, nor by more than seven Members; and no person"]
["shall be capable of being a delegate for more than three"]
["years in any term of six years; nor shall any person,"]
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[939]
["ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATION ø1231.7¿"]
["being a delegate, be capable of holding any office under"]
["the united states, for which he, or another for his benefit"]
["receives any salary, fees or emolument of any kind."]
["Each state shall maintain its own delegates in a meet-"]
["ing of the states, and while they act as members of the"]
["committee of the states."]
["In determining questions in the united states, in Con-"]
["gress assembled, each state shall have one vote."]
["Freedom of speech and debate in Congress shall not"]
["be impeached or questioned in any Court, or place out"]
["of Congress, and the members of congress shall be pro-"]
["tected in their persons from arrests and imprisonments,"]
["during the time of their going to and from, and attendance"]
["on congress, except for treason, felony, or breach of the"]
["peace."]
["1231.7ARTICLE VI. No state without the Consent of the united"]
["states in congress assembled, shall send any embassy to,"]
["or receive any embassy from, or enter into any conference,"]
["agreement, alliance or treaty with any King, prince or"]
["state; nor shall any person holding any office of profit"]
["or trust under the united states, or any of them, accept"]
["of any present, emolument, office or title of any kind"]
["whatever from any king, prince or foreign state; nor shall"]
["the united states in congress assembled, or any of them,"]
["grant any title of nobility."]
["No two or more states shall enter into any treaty, con-"]
["federation or alliance whatever between them, without"]
["the consent of the united states in congress assembled,"]
["specifying accurately the purposes for which the same"]
["is to be entered into, and how long it shall continue."]
["No state shall lay any imposts of duties, which may"]
["interfere with any stipulations in treaties, entered into"]
["by the united states in congress assembled with any king,"]
["prince or state, in pursuance of any treaties already pro-"]
["posed by congress to the courts of France and Spain."]
["No vessels of war shall be kept up in time of peace"]
["by any state, except such number only, as shall be deemed"]
["necessary by the united states in congress assembled, for"]
["the defence of such state, or its trade; nor shall any body"]
["of forces be kept up by any state, in time of peace, except"]
["such number only, as in the judgment of the united states,"]
["in congress assembled, shall be deemed requisite to garri-"]
["son the forts necessary for the defence of such state; but"]
["every state shall always keep up a well regulated and"]
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[940]
["ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATIONø1231.8¿"]
["disciplined militia, sufficiently armed and accoutred, and"]
["shall provide and constantly have ready for use, in public"]
["stores, a due number of field-pieces and tents, and a prop-"]
["er quantity of arms, ammunition and camp equipage."]
["No state shall engage in any war without the consent"]
["of the united states in congress assembled, unless such"]
["state be actually invaded by enemies, or shall have re-"]
["ceived certain advice of a resolution being formed by some"]
["nation of Indians to invade such state, and the danger"]
["is so imminent as not to admit of a delay, till the united"]
["states in congress assembled can be consulted: nor shall"]
["any state grant commissions to any ships or vessels of"]
["war, nor letters of marque or reprisal, except it be after"]
["a declaration of war by the united states in Congress"]
["assembled, and then only against the kingdom or state"]
["and the subjects thereof, against which war has been so"]
["declared, and under such regulations as shall be estab-"]
["lished by the united states in congress assembled, unless"]
["such state be infested by pirates, in which case vessels"]
["of war may be fitted out for that occasion, and kept so"]
["long as the danger shall continue, or until the united"]
["states in congress assembled shall determine otherwise."]
["1231.8 ARTICLE VII. When land-forces are raised by any state"]
["for the common defence, all officers of or under the rank"]
["of colonel, shall be appointed by the legislature of each"]
["state respectively by whom such forces shall be raised,"]
["or in such manner as such state shall direct, and all"]
["vacancies shall be filled up by the state which first made"]
["the appointment."]
["1231.9 ARTICLE VIII. All charges of war, and all other expences"]
["that shall be incurred for the common defence or general"]
["welfare, and allowed by the united states in congress as-"]
["sembled, shall be defrayed out of a common treasury,"]
["which shall be supplied by the several states, in propor-"]
["tion to the value of all land within each state, granted"]
["to or surveyed for any Person, as such land and the build-"]
["ings and improvements thereon shall be estimated accord-"]
["ing to such mode as the united states in congress assem-"]
["bled, shall from time to time direct and appoint."]
["The taxes for paying that proportion shall be laid and"]
["levied by the authority and direction of the legislatures"]
["of the several states within the time agreed upon by the"]
["united states in congress assembled."]
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[941]
["ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATION ø1231.10¿"]
["1231.10ARTICLE IX. The united states in congress assembled,"]
["shall have the sole and exclusive right and power of deter-"]
["mining on peace and war, except in the cases mentioned"]
["in the sixth article—of sending and receiving"]
["embassadors—entering into treaties and alliances, pro-"]
["vided that no treaty of commerce shall be made whereby"]
["the legislative power of the respective states shall be re-"]
["strained from imposing such imposts and duties on for-"]
["eigners, as their own people are subjected to, or from"]
["prohibiting the exportation or importation of any species"]
["of goods or commodities whatsoever—of establishing rules"]
["for deciding in all cases, what captures on land or water"]
["shall be legal, and in what manner prizes taken by land"]
["or naval forces in the service of the united states shall"]
["be divided or appropriated—of granting letters of marque"]
["and reprisal in times of peace—appointing courts for the"]
["trial of piracies and felonies committed on the high seas"]
["and establishing courts for receiving and determining fi-"]
["nally appeals in all cases of captures, provided that no"]
["member of congress shall be appointed a judge of any"]
["of the said courts."]
["The united states in congress assembled shall also be"]
["the last resort on appeal in all disputes and differences"]
["now subsisting or that hereafter may arise between two"]
["or more states concerning boundary, jurisdiction or any"]
["other cause whatever, which authority shall always be"]
["exercised in the manner following. Whenever the legisla-"]
["tive or executive authority or lawful agent of any state"]
["in controversy with another shall present a petition to"]
["congress stating the matter in question and praying for"]
["a hearing, notice thereof shall be given by order of con-"]
["gress to the legislative or executive authority of the other"]
["state in controversy, and a day assigned for the appear-"]
["ance of the parties by their lawful agents, who shall then"]
["be directed to appoint by joint consent, commissioners"]
["or judges to constitute a court for hearing and deter-"]
["mining the matter in question: but if they cannot agree,"]
["congress shall name three persons out of each of the"]
["united states, and from the list of such persons each party"]
["shall alternately strike out one, the petitioners beginning,"]
["until the number shall be reduced to thirteen; and from"]
["that number not less than seven, nor more than nine"]
["names as congress shall direct, shall in the presence of"]
["congress be drawn out by lot, and the persons whose"]
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[942]
["ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATIONø1231.10¿"]
["names shall be so drawn or any five of them, shall be"]
["commissioners or judges, to hear and finally determine"]
["the controversy, so always as a major part of the judges"]
["who shall hear the cause shall agree in the determination:"]
["and if either party shall neglect to attend at the day"]
["appointed, without showing reasons, which congress shall"]
["judge sufficient, or being present shall refuse to strike,"]
["the congress shall proceed to nominate three persons out"]
["of each State, and the secretary of congress shall strike"]
["in behalf of such party absent or refusing; and the judg-"]
["ment and sentence of the court to be appointed, in the"]
["manner before prescribed, shall be final and conclusive;"]
["and if any of the parties shall refuse to submit to the"]
["authority of such court, or to appear or defend their claim"]
["or cause, the court shall nevertheless proceed to pro-"]
["nounce sentence, or judgment, which shall in like manner"]
["be final and decisive, the judgment or sentence and other"]
["proceedings being in either case transmitted to congress,"]
["and lodged among the acts of congress for the security"]
["of the parties concerned: provided that every commis-"]
["sioner, before he sits in judgment, shall take an oath"]
["to be administered by one of the judges of the supreme"]
["or superior court of the state, where the cause shall be"]
["tried, ‘‘well and truly to hear and determine the matter"]
["in question, according to the best of his judgment without"]
["favour, affection or hope of reward’’: provided also that"]
["no state shall be deprived of territory for the benefit of"]
["the united states."]
["All controversies concerning the private right of soil"]
["claimed under different grants of two or more states,"]
["whose jurisdiction as they may respect such lands, and"]
["the states which passed such grants are adjusted, the"]
["said grants or either of them being at the same time"]
["claimed to have originated antecedent to such settlement"]
["of jurisdiction, shall on the petition of either party to"]
["the congress of the united states, be finally determined"]
["as near as may be in the same manner as is before pre-"]
["scribed for deciding disputes respecting territorial jurisdic-"]
["tion between different states."]
["The united states in congress assembled shall also have"]
["the sole and exclusive right and power of regulating the"]
["alloy and value of coin struck by their own authority,"]
["or by that of the respective states—fixing the standard"]
["of weights and measures throughout the united states—"]
["VerDate 03-FEB-2003 09:48 Mar 04, 2003 Jkt 082300 PO 00000 Frm 00952 Fmt 0869 Sfmt 0869 D:\\DOCS\\82300.TXT SSC2 PsN: SSC2"]
[943]
["ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATION ø1231.10¿"]
["regulating the trade and managing all affairs with the"]
["Indians, not members of any of the states, provided that"]
["the legislative right of any state within its own limits"]
["be not infringed or violated—establishing and regulating"]
["post-offices from one state to another, throughout all the"]
["united states, and exacting such postage on the papers"]
["passing thro’ the same as may be requisite to defray the"]
["expences of the said office—appointing all officers of the"]
["land forces, in the service of the united states, excepting"]
["regimental officers—appointing all the officers of the"]
["naval forces, and commissioning all officers whatever in"]
["the service of the united states—making rules for the"]
["government and regulation of the said land and naval"]
["forces, and directing their operations."]
["The united states in congress assembled shall have au-"]
["thority to appoint a committee, to sit in the recess of"]
["congress, to be denominated ‘‘A Committee of the States,’’"]
["and to consist of one delegate from each state; and to"]
["appoint such other committees and civil officers as may"]
["be necessary for managing the general affairs of the"]
["united states under their direction—to appoint one of their"]
["number to preside, provided that no person be allowed"]
["to serve in the office of president more than one year"]
["in any term of three years; to ascertain the necessary"]
["sums of Money to be raised for the service of the united"]
["states, and to appropriate and apply the same for defray-"]
["ing the public expences—to borrow money, or emit bills"]
["on the credit of the united states, transmitting every half"]
["year to the respective states an account of the sums of"]
["moneys so borrowed or emitted—to build and equip a"]
["navy—to agree upon the number of land forces, and to"]
["make requisition from each state for its quota, in propor-"]
["tion to the number of white inhabitants in such state;"]
["which requisitions shall be binding, and thereupon the"]
["legislature of each state shall appoint the regimental offi-"]
["cers, raise the men and cloath, arm and equip them in"]
["a soldier like manner, at the expence of the united states;"]
["and the officers and men so cloathed, armed and equipped"]
["shall march to the place appointed, and within the time"]
["agreed on by the united states in congress assembled:"]
["But if the united states in congress assembled shall, on"]
["consideration of circumstances judge proper that any state"]
["should not raise men, or should raise a smaller number"]
["than its quota, and that any other state should raise"]
["VerDate 03-FEB-2003 09:48 Mar 04, 2003 Jkt 082300 PO 00000 Frm 00953 Fmt 0869 Sfmt 0869 D:\\DOCS\\82300.TXT SSC2 PsN: SSC2"]
[944]
["ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATIONø1231.11¿"]
["a greater number of men than the quota thereof, such"]
["extra number shall be raised, officered, cloathed, armed"]
["and equipped in the same manner as the quota of such"]
["state, unless the legislature of such state shall judge that"]
["such extra number cannot be safely spared out of the"]
["same, in which case they shall raise, officer, cloath, arm"]
["and equip as many of such extra number as they judge"]
["can be safely spared. And the officers and men so"]
["cloathed, armed and equipped, shall march to the place"]
["appointed, and within the time agreed on by the united"]
["states in congress assembled."]
["The united states in congress assembled shall never"]
["tain the sums and expences necessary for the defence"]
["them. And the Articles of this confederation shall be invio-"]
["J OHN BANISTER,"]
["ment; and on the 11th of June, 1776, it was ‘‘Resolved, That a committee"]
["a firm league of friendship with each other, for their com-"]
["thereof respectively, provided that such restrictions shall"]
["long as the danger shall continue, or until the united"]
["vacancies shall be filled up by the state which first made"]
["or judges to constitute a court for hearing and deter-"]
["tion between different states."]
["should not raise men, or should raise a smaller number"]
["tures of the several states."]
["On the part and behalf of the State of New Hampshire."]
["JNO MATHEWS,"]
["sylvania, Virginia, and South Carolina. Congress then directed that a"]
["immunities of free citizens in the several states, and the"]
["Each state shall maintain its own delegates in a meet-"]
["welfare, and allowed by the united states in congress as-"]
["or naval forces in the service of the united states shall"]
["post-offices from one state to another, throughout all the"]
["in any term of three years; to ascertain the necessary"]
["within the united states, so that no period of adjournment"]
["On the part and behalf of the State of Massachusetts Bay."]
["J ONA BAYARD SMITH ,"]
["the 2d of March, 1781, Congress assembled under the new form of"]
["pendence of America agree to certain articles of Confed-"]
["If any Person guilty of, or charged with treason, felony"]
["No vessels of war shall be kept up in time of peace"]
["united states in congress assembled."]
["ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATIONø1231.10¿"]
["thority to appoint a committee, to sit in the recess of"]
["cloathed, armed and equipped, shall march to the place"]
["ance of the present confederation, shall be deemed and"]
["J OHN COLLINS."]
["VerDate 03-FEB-2003 09:48 Mar 04, 2003 Jkt 082300 PO 00000 Frm 00957 Fmt 0869 Sfmt 0869 D:\\DOCS\\82300.TXT SSC2 PsN: SSC2"]
["ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATION 1"]
["of these states, paupers, vagabonds and fugitives from"]
["No vessels of war shall be kept up in time of peace"]
["long as the danger shall continue, or until the united"]
["strained from imposing such imposts and duties on for-"]
["the states which passed such grants are adjusted, the"]
["ing the public expences—to borrow money, or emit bills"]
["of them, shall be authorized to execute, in the recess"]
["inviolably observed by the states we respectively represent"]
["G OUVR MORRIS ."]
["ture."]
["Newhampshire, Massachusetts-bay, Rhodeisland and"]
["shall be capable of being a delegate for more than three"]
["ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATIONø1231.8¿"]
["the legislative power of the respective states shall be re-"]
["of the parties concerned: provided that every commis-"]
["congress, to be denominated ‘‘A Committee of the States,’’"]
["of congress such of the powers of congress as the united"]
["1231.15AND WHEREAS it has pleased the Great Governor of"]
["G OUVR MORRIS ."]
["of Confederation and Perpetual Union’’ were finally agreed to in form,"]
["TO ALL TO WHOM THESE PRESENTS SHALL COME, WE THE"]
["years in any term of six years; nor shall any person,"]
["specifying accurately the purposes for which the same"]
["states in congress assembled can be consulted: nor shall"]
["united states, and from the list of such persons each party"]
["whose jurisdiction as they may respect such lands, and"]
["extra number shall be raised, officered, cloathed, armed"]
["joining in the measures of the united states, shall be"]
["entirely ratify and confirm each and every of the said"]
["JNO MATHEWS,"]
["the 10th day of March next.’’ This letter was signed by the President"]
["mutual and general welfare, binding themselves to assist"]
["gress assembled, each state shall have one vote."]
["a declaration of war by the united states in Congress"]
["tive or executive authority or lawful agent of any state"]
["in question, according to the best of his judgment without"]
["ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATIONø1231.11¿"]
["crecy; and the yeas and nays of the delegates of each"]
["our respective constituents, that they shall abide by the"]
["RICHARD HENRY LEE,"]
["accompany the Articles of Confederation, which concluded with a rec-"]
["1231.4 ARTICLE III. The said states hereby severally enter into"]
["of each state shall direct, to meet in Congress on the"]
["peace."]
["ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATION ø1231.10¿"]
["united states, and from the list of such persons each party"]
["regimental officers—appointing all the officers of the"]
["states in congress assembled."]
["questions which by this confederation are submitted to"]
["O LIVER WOLCOTT ,"]
["W ILLIAM HENRY DRAYTON,"]
["September 30, 1777, to June 27, 1778. Ratification of the Articles by the respective"]
["Justice excepted, shall be entitled to all privileges and"]
["or trust under the united states, or any of them, accept"]
["that shall be incurred for the common defence or general"]
["gress to the legislative or executive authority of the other"]
[942]
["consideration of circumstances judge proper that any state"]
["mander-in-chief of the army or navy, unless nine states"]
["the third year of the independence of America."]
["On the part and behalf of the State of North Carolina."]
["E DWD . LANGWORTHY ."]
["gated to the United States in Congress assembled."]
["property of the united states, or either of them."]
["state be actually invaded by enemies, or shall have re-"]
["of the several states within the time agreed upon by the"]
["be final and decisive, the judgment or sentence and other"]
["The united states in congress assembled shall have au-"]
["The Congress of the united states shall have power"]
["and in behalf of our respective constituents, fully and"]
["D ANIEL ROBERDEAU,"]
["This report underwent a thorough discussion in Congress, from time"]
["ø1231¿"]
["moved to the state having jurisdiction of his offence."]
["posed by congress to the courts of France and Spain."]
["bled, shall from time to time direct and appoint."]
["the legislative power of the respective states shall be re-"]
["the legislative right of any state within its own limits"]
["states, and to appropriate and apply the same for defray-"]
["and debts contracted by, or under the authority of con-"]
["ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATIONø1231.16¿"]
["E DWD . LANGWORTHY ."]
["the 5th of May, 1779; Maryland on the 1st of March, 1781; and on"]
["eration and perpetual Union between the states of"]
["on congress, except for treason, felony, or breach of the"]
[940]
["or more states concerning boundary, jurisdiction or any"]
["or superior court of the state, where the cause shall be"]
["whose jurisdiction as they may respect such lands, and"]
["a soldier like manner, at the expence of the united states;"]
["1231.11 ARTICLE X. The committee of the states, or any nine"]
["ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATIONø1231.16¿"]
["their delegates to ratify the same in the Congress of the United States;"]
["of Congress and sent, with a copy of the articles, to each State legisla-"]
["CAROLINA AND GEORGIA"]
["shall be capable of being a delegate for more than three"]
["is so imminent as not to admit of a delay, till the united"]
["vided that no treaty of commerce shall be made whereby"]
["claimed under different grants of two or more states,"]
["thority to appoint a committee, to sit in the recess of"]
["1231.12ARTICLE XI. Canada acceding to this confederation, and"]
["confirmed by the legislatures of every state."]
["WILLIAM DUER,"]
["United States, and to attend Congress for that purpose on or before"]
["1231.1ACT OF CONFEDERATION OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA"]
["In determining questions in the united states, in Con-"]
["the consent of the united states in congress assembled,"]
["exercised in the manner following. Whenever the legisla-"]
["united states, and from the list of such persons each party"]
["the sole and exclusive right and power of regulating the"]
["a greater number of men than the quota thereof, such"]
["gress, before the assembling of the united states, in pursu-"]
["S AMUEL ADAMS,"]
["W ILLIAM HENRY DRAYTON,"]
["circular letter be addressed to the States whose delegates were not"]
["mon defence, the security of their Liberties, and their"]
["on congress, except for treason, felony, or breach of the"]
["war, nor letters of marque or reprisal, except it be after"]
["congress shall name three persons out of each of the"]
["tried, ‘‘well and truly to hear and determine the matter"]
["appointed, and within the time agreed on by the united"]
["or military operations as in their judgment require se-"]
["F RAS LEWIS,"]
["NICHOLAS VAN DYKE,"]
["ber, 1777, the Congress agreed upon the form of a circular letter to"]
["of these states, paupers, vagabonds and fugitives from"]
["be annually appointed in such manner as the legislature"]
["grant any title of nobility."]
[941]
["VerDate 03-FEB-2003 09:48 Mar 04, 2003 Jkt 082300 PO 00000 Frm 00951 Fmt 0869 Sfmt 0869 D:\\DOCS\\82300.TXT SSC2 PsN: SSC2"]
["land forces, in the service of the united states, excepting"]
["of land or sea forces to be raised, nor appoint a com-"]
["tions of the united states in congress assembled, on all"]
["J OSEPH REED , JULY 22, 1778."]
["While the Declaration of Independence was under consideration in"]
["at York, Pennsylvania, which served as the site of the National Capital from"]
["duties or restriction shall be laid by any state, on the"]
["or trust under the united states, or any of them, accept"]
["levied by the authority and direction of the legislatures"]
["a hearing, notice thereof shall be given by order of con-"]
["forces, and directing their operations."]
["But if the united states in congress assembled shall, on"]
["ly, except such parts thereof relating to treaties, alliances"]
["one Thousand seven Hundred and Seventy-eight, and in"]
["F RANCIS LIGHTFOOT LEE ."]
["from Maryland."]
["right, which is not by this confederation expressly dele-"]
["1231.6 ARTICLE V. For the more convenient management of"]
["of the united states in congress assembled, unless such"]
["vided that no treaty of commerce shall be made whereby"]
["be final and decisive, the judgment or sentence and other"]
["sums of Money to be raised for the service of the united"]
["states in congress assembled."]
[946]
["ROBT. MORRIS,"]
["tions of secrecy."]
["pendence of America agree to certain articles of Confed-"]
["of the state from which he fled, be delivered up and re-"]
["VerDate 03-FEB-2003 09:48 Mar 04, 2003 Jkt 082300 PO 00000 Frm 00949 Fmt 0869 Sfmt 0869 D:\\DOCS\\82300.TXT SSC2 PsN: SSC2"]
["ing to such mode as the united states in congress assem-"]
["trial of piracies and felonies committed on the high seas"]
["Indians, not members of any of the states, provided that"]
["cers, raise the men and cloath, arm and equip them in"]
["and debts contracted by, or under the authority of con-"]
["A UGUST 8, 1778."]
["EDWD TELFAIR,"]
["1778; New Jersey on the 26th of November following; Delaware on"]
["WARE, MARYLAND, VIRGINIA, NORTH CAROLINA, SOUTH"]
["during the time of their going to and from, and attendance"]
["nation of Indians to invade such state, and the danger"]
["now subsisting or that hereafter may arise between two"]
["All controversies concerning the private right of soil"]
["which requisitions shall be binding, and thereupon the"]
["of the united states assembled is requisite."]
[946]
["H ENRY MARCHANT,"]
["United States, and to attend Congress for that purpose on or before"]
["NECTICUT, NEW YORK, NEW JERSEY, PENNSYLVANIA, DELA-"]
["committee of the states."]
[940]
["of war may be fitted out for that occasion, and kept so"]
["of each State, and the secretary of congress shall strike"]
["The united states in congress assembled shall also have"]
["states, nor appropriate money, nor agree upon the number"]
["and debts contracted by, or under the authority of con-"]
["F RAS LEWIS,"]
["namely: Mr. Bartlett, Mr. S. Adams, Mr. Hopkins, Mr. Sherman, Mr."]
["ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATION 1"]
["Owner is an inhabitant, provided also that no imposition,"]
["states in congress assembled, shall send any embassy to,"]
["that shall be incurred for the common defence or general"]
["mining the matter in question: but if they cannot agree,"]
["alloy and value of coin struck by their own authority,"]
["cloathed, armed and equipped, shall march to the place"]
["of confederation, the voice of nine states in the congress"]
["perpetual; nor shall any alteration at any time hereafter"]
["H ENRY LAURENS,"]
["With the onset of the full-scale Russian war against Ukraine, the impact on the seas has intensified. Protected areas along the Black and Azov Seas are suffering from both occupation and hostilities. All of Ukraine’s marine nature reserves, along with seven coastal national nature parks and one biosphere reserve, are currently under occupation. These areas, encompassing a diverse range of habitats like seagrass meadows, underwater seaweed forests, dunes, and lagoons, were established to safeguard the unique marine and coastal ecosystems of the Black and Azov Seas."]
["Certain territories, like the Kinburn Spit or Dzharylhach Island in the Black Sea, face direct hostilities or have Russian troops present. The building of fortifications and trenches, along with the movement of military equipment and frequent explosions, are damaging vegetation and soil. Fires, ignited both by combat and other factors, add to the devastation. Occupation exacerbates the issue, with the occupiers mining lands and destroying firefighting equipment. The Kinburn Spit alone witnessed 131 fires in the first year of the full-scale invasion, marking 2022 as the year with the largest fires in recent decades. These fires devastated over 5,000 hectares, impacting steppe and coastal ecosystems and the nesting sites of around 100 bird species.Certain territories, like the Kinburn Spit or Dzharylhach Island in the Black Sea, face direct hostilities or have Russian troops present. The building of fortifications and trenches, along with the movement of military equipment and frequent explosions, are damaging vegetation and soil. Fires, ignited both by combat and other factors, add to the devastation. Occupation exacerbates the issue, with the occupiers mining lands and destroying firefighting equipment. The Kinburn Spit alone witnessed 131 fires in the first year of the full-scale invasion, marking 2022 as the year with the largest fires in recent decades. These fires devastated over 5,000 hectares, impacting steppe and coastal ecosystems and the nesting sites of around 100 bird species."]
["The Black Sea before the war VS now"]
["With the onset of the full-scale Russian war against Ukraine, the impact on the seas has intensified. Protected areas along the Black and Azov Seas are suffering from both occupation and hostilities. All of Ukraine’s marine nature reserves, along with seven coastal national nature parks and one biosphere reserve, are currently under occupation. These areas, encompassing a diverse range of habitats like seagrass meadows, underwater seaweed forests, dunes, and lagoons, were established to safeguard the unique marine and coastal ecosystems of the Black and Azov Seas."]
["Together with a marine biologist and a specialist from the climate department at NGO Ecoaction, Sofiia Sadohurska, we dive into details about the uniqueness of the Black Sea, why its biodiversity needs to be protected, and how the war affects its ecosystem. We will also discover if there is any hope for the sea’s restoration and how to overcome the consequences of war."]
["Scientists estimate that oil slicks have covered tens of thousands of square kilometres of Ukraine’s marine protected areas. This oil layer impedes oxygen penetration into the water, inflicting immense damage on marine life and often leading to mass fatalities. Oil and lubricants are particularly toxic to aquatic life, especially the tiny organisms in plankton and neuston (organisms living near the water’s surface). Oil residues can linger on the sea surface for extended periods, drifting with currents, washing ashore, or sinking to the seabed, posing long-term ecological challenges."]
[]
[]
["In 1996, the six coastal states of the Black Sea signed the Strategic Action Plan for the Environmental Protection and Rehabilitation of the Black Sea. This plan was necessitated by the alarming destruction of the Black Sea’s unique natural complexes due to human impact. Today, the urgency to preserve the Black Sea is greater than ever as it faces the repercussions of the Russian invasion. How is the war affecting the Black Sea, and what measures can be taken to mitigate the consequences for both nature and humanity?"]
[]
["Scientists estimate that oil slicks have covered tens of thousands of square kilometres of Ukraine’s marine protected areas. This oil layer impedes oxygen penetration into the water, inflicting immense damage on marine life and often leading to mass fatalities. Oil and lubricants are particularly toxic to aquatic life, especially the tiny organisms in plankton and neuston (organisms living near the water’s surface). Oil residues can linger on the sea surface for extended periods, drifting with currents, washing ashore, or sinking to the seabed, posing long-term ecological challenges."]
["Military activities harm the nature reserve fund, leading to sea pollution from sunken equipment and damaged coastal infrastructure, and adversely affect the coastal ecosystems."]
["Protected areas have also suffered damage or destruction due to natural resource depletion and quarry construction. For instance, the Bakal Spit in northern Crimea, a regional landscape park, experienced illegal sand mining by the occupiers for various construction projects on the peninsula. Furthermore, large-scale infrastructure projects pose additional risks. The infamous Kerch Bridge, built in 2018, could have altered ecosystems and hydrogeological conditions in the Kerch Strait and the entire Azov Sea. The construction of this bridge virtually destroyed the natural habitats on Tuzla Island in the Kerch Strait and disrupted the migration routes of marine animals."]
[]
[]
[]
["Since the Russian-Ukrainian war erupted in 2014, numerous protected areas have fallen under Russian occupation. Many suffer from inadequate protection and altered statuses, while others are directly impacted by the actions of the occupiers. A notable example is the militarisation of Crimea, including military exercises in or near protected zones. The Russians have conducted extensive military drills near Cape Chauda on the Kerch Peninsula, adversely affecting the steppe, coastal, and marine ecosystems of the Opuk Nature Reserve. In areas of intense militarisation and training, a significant amount of ammunition has been used, particularly at sea, causing harm to living organisms and contaminating soil, air, and water."]
["However, its semi-enclosed nature and the large volume of oxygen-depleted waters render the Black Sea particularly susceptible to human activity and climate change."]
[]
[]
[]
[null,null,"ø1231¿"]
[null,null,"imported into any state, to any other state of which the"]
[null,null,"reserved to each state, to recall its delegates, or any of"]
[null,null,"No two or more states shall enter into any treaty, con-"]
[null,null,"of goods or commodities whatsoever—of establishing rules"]
[null,null,"or judges to constitute a court for hearing and deter-"]
[null,null,"moneys so borrowed or emitted—to build and equip a"]
[null,null,944]
[null,null,"in Congress. DONE at Philadelphia in the state of Penn-"]
[null,null,"On the part and behalf of the State of Massachusetts Bay."]
[null,null,"JNO WALTON, 24th JULY 1778,"]
[null,null,"the ratification, informing them how many and what States had ratified"]
[null,null,"1231.4 ARTICLE III. The said states hereby severally enter into"]
[null,null,"the united states, for which he, or another for his benefit"]
[null,null,"states in congress assembled can be consulted: nor shall"]
[null,null,"The united states in congress assembled shall also be"]
[null,null,"to be administered by one of the judges of the supreme"]
[null,null,"But if the united states in congress assembled shall, on"]
[null,null,"and shall publish the Journal of their proceedings month-"]
[null,null,"F RANCIS DANA,"]
[null,null,"On the part and behalf of the State of Delaware."]
[null,null,"1 Adopted by the Continental Congress on November 15, 1777, while meeting"]
[null,null,"Providence Plantations, Connecticut, New York, New Jer-"]
[null,null,"1231.6 ARTICLE V. For the more convenient management of"]
[null,null,"a declaration of war by the united states in Congress"]
[null,null,"united states in congress assembled."]
[null,null,"scribed for deciding disputes respecting territorial jurisdic-"]
[null,null,"passing thro’ the same as may be requisite to defray the"]
[null,null,"such extra number cannot be safely spared out of the"]
[null,null,"the public faith are hereby solemnly pledged."]
[null,null,"O LIVER WOLCOTT ,"]
[null,null,"ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATION"]
[null,null,"OUR NAMES, SEND GREETINGS"]
[null,null,"people of each state shall have free ingress and regress"]
[null,null,"agreement, alliance or treaty with any King, prince or"]
[null,null,"of colonel, shall be appointed by the legislature of each"]
[null,null,"in controversy with another shall present a petition to"]
[null,null,"VerDate 03-FEB-2003 09:48 Mar 04, 2003 Jkt 082300 PO 00000 Frm 00952 Fmt 0869 Sfmt 0869 D:\\DOCS\\82300.TXT SSC2 PsN: SSC2"]
[null,null,"shall march to the place appointed, and within the time"]
[null,null,"them. And the Articles of this confederation shall be invio-"]
[null,null,"in Congress. DONE at Philadelphia in the state of Penn-"]
[null,null,"tions of secrecy."]
[null,null,"articles and the ratification to be engrossed on parchment; which, on"]
[null,null,"1231.3ARTICLE II. Each State retains its Sovereignty, freedom"]
[null,null,"of any present, emolument, office or title of any kind"]
[null,null,"er quantity of arms, ammunition and camp equipage."]
[null,null,"that number not less than seven, nor more than nine"]
[null,null,"authority of such court, or to appear or defend their claim"]
[null,null,"land forces, in the service of the united states, excepting"]
[null,null,"point, except for adjourning from day to day be deter-"]
[null,null,"the World to incline the hearts of the legislatures we"]
[null,null,1778]
[null,null,"with competent powers, ultimately, and in the name and behalf of the"]
[null,null,"Whereas the Delegates of the United States of America"]
[null,null,"Justice, and be found in any of the united states, he"]
[null,null,"specifying accurately the purposes for which the same"]
[null,null,"to or surveyed for any Person, as such land and the build-"]
[null,null,"appointed, without showing reasons, which congress shall"]
[null,null,"ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATION ø1231.10¿"]
[null,null,"mined, unless by the votes of a majority of the united"]
[null,null,"union: but no other colony shall be admitted into the"]
[null,null,"our respective constituents, that they shall abide by the"]
[null,null,"On the part and behalf of the State of Georgia."]
[null,null,"ratification of the Articles of Confederation, and directed a copy of the"]
[null,null,"ereignty, trade, or any other pretence whatever."]
[null,null,"of Congress, and the members of congress shall be pro-"]
[null,null,"of forces be kept up by any state, in time of peace, except"]
[null,null,"The united states in congress assembled shall also be"]
[null,null,"be final and decisive, the judgment or sentence and other"]
[null,null,"make requisition from each state for its quota, in propor-"]
[null,null,"when it is desired by any delegate; and the delegates"]
[null,null,"mitted to them. And that the articles thereof shall be"]
[null,null,"F RANCIS LIGHTFOOT LEE ."]
[null,null,"with competent powers, ultimately, and in the name and behalf of the"]
[null,null,"each other, against all force offered to, or attacks made"]
[null,null,"them, at any time within the year, and to send others"]
[null,null,"every state shall always keep up a well regulated and"]
[null,null,"prohibiting the exportation or importation of any species"]
[null,null,"judge sufficient, or being present shall refuse to strike,"]
[null,null,"year to the respective states an account of the sums of"]
[null,null,"and welfare of the united states, or any of them, nor"]
[null,null,"ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATION ø1231.15¿"]
[null,null,"On the part and behalf of the State of New York."]
[null,null,"On the part and behalf of the State of Georgia."]
[null,null,"from Maryland."]
[null,null,"the privileges of trade and commerce, subject to the same"]
[null,null,"the united states in congress assembled, or any of them,"]
[null,null,"the appointment."]
[null,null,"of the said courts."]
[null,null,"The united states in congress assembled shall also have"]
[null,null,"agreed on by the united states in congress assembled:"]
[null,null,"them with; provided that no power be delegated to the"]
[null,null,"E LBRIDGE G ERRY,"]
[null,null,"J NO WILLIAMS."]
[null,null,"ures were taken for the establishment of a constitutional form of govern-"]
[null,null,"ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATIONø1231.4¿"]
[null,null,"shall upon demand of the Governor or executive power,"]
[null,null,"is so imminent as not to admit of a delay, till the united"]
[null,null,"be divided or appropriated—of granting letters of marque"]
[null,null,"gress to the legislative or executive authority of the other"]
[null,null,"sums of Money to be raised for the service of the united"]
[null,null,"state, unless the legislature of such state shall judge that"]
[null,null,"and in behalf of our respective constituents, fully and"]
[null,null,"S AMUEL HUNTINGTON,"]
[null,null,"and they were directed to be proposed to the legislatures of all the"]
[null,null,"UNDERSIGNED DELEGATES OF THE STATES AFFIXED TO"]
[null,null,"courts and magistrates of every other state."]
[null,null,"No vessels of war shall be kept up in time of peace"]
[null,null,"for the common defence, all officers of or under the rank"]
[null,null,"ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATIONø1231.10¿"]
[null,null,"of weights and measures throughout the united states—"]
[null,null,"appointed, and within the time agreed on by the united"]
[null,null,"questions which by this confederation are submitted to"]
[null,null,"J OHN COLLINS."]
[null,null,1778]
[null,null,"government."]
[null,null,"Carolina, South Carolina and Georgia in the Words fol-"]
[null,null,"states in congress assembled, shall send any embassy to,"]
[null,null,"states in congress assembled shall determine otherwise."]
[null,null,"tion to the value of all land within each state, granted"]
[null,null,"the states which passed such grants are adjusted, the"]
[null,null,"expences of the said office—appointing all officers of the"]
[null,null,"of them, shall be authorized to execute, in the recess"]
[null,null,"1231.15AND WHEREAS it has pleased the Great Governor of"]
[null,null,"J OHN BANISTER,"]
[null,null,"ommendation to each of the several legislatures ‘‘to invest its delegates"]
[null,null,"United States of America.’’"]
[null,null,"ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATION ø1231.7¿"]
[null,null,"shall provide and constantly have ready for use, in public"]
[null,null,"strained from imposing such imposts and duties on for-"]
[null,null,"and if either party shall neglect to attend at the day"]
[null,null,"and to consist of one delegate from each state; and to"]
[null,null,"point, except for adjourning from day to day be deter-"]
[null,null,"1231.15AND WHEREAS it has pleased the Great Governor of"]
[null,null,"we do further solemnly plight and engage the faith of"]
[null,null,"Mr. Hewes, Mr. E. Rutledge, and Mr. Gwinnett. On the 12th of July,"]
[null,null,"was signed by the delegates of New Hampshire, Massachusetts Bay,"]
[null,null,"OUR NAMES, SEND GREETINGS"]
[null,null,"of Congress, and the members of congress shall be pro-"]
[null,null,"No state shall lay any imposts of duties, which may"]
[null,null,"tion to the value of all land within each state, granted"]
[null,null,"nounce sentence, or judgment, which shall in like manner"]
[null,null,943]
[null,null,"state on any question shall be entered on the Journal,"]
[null,null,"union: but no other colony shall be admitted into the"]
[null,null,"J NO HARVIE ,"]
[null,null,"T HOS. HEYWARD , JUNR."]
[null,null,"dispatch, to authorize their delegates to ratify the same. Of these States,"]
[null,null,"upon them, or any of them, on account of religion, sov-"]
[null,null,"of any present, emolument, office or title of any kind"]
[null,null,"and the subjects thereof, against which war has been so"]
[null,null,"of the said courts."]
[null,null,"or superior court of the state, where the cause shall be"]
[null,null,"navy—to agree upon the number of land forces, and to"]
[null,null,945]
[null,null,"on all questions, which by the said confederation are sub-"]
[null,null,"T HOS. HEYWARD , JUNR."]
[null,null,"ommendation to each of the several legislatures ‘‘to invest its delegates"]
[null,null,"to and from any other state, and shall enjoy therein all"]
[null,null,"reserved to each state, to recall its delegates, or any of"]
[null,null,"son the forts necessary for the defence of such state; but"]
[null,null,"member of congress shall be appointed a judge of any"]
[null,null,"appointed, without showing reasons, which congress shall"]
[null,null,"shall march to the place appointed, and within the time"]
[null,null,"tain the sums and expences necessary for the defence"]
[null,null,"S AMUEL ADAMS,"]
[null,null,"A NDREW ADAMS ."]
[null,null,"the Continental Congress, and before it was finally agreed upon, meas-"]
[null,null,"not completed until March 1, 1781, when the Articles were signed by the delegates"]
[null,null,"Justice, and be found in any of the united states, he"]
[null,null,"whatever from any king, prince or foreign state; nor shall"]
[null,null,"vacancies shall be filled up by the state which first made"]
[null,null,"a hearing, notice thereof shall be given by order of con-"]
[null,null,"tion between different states."]
[null,null,"and equipped in the same manner as the quota of such"]
[null,null,"states, shall from time to time think expedient to vest"]
[null,null,"R OGER SHERMAN,"]
[null,null,"C ORNS. HARNETT,"]
[null,null,"TO ALL TO WHOM THESE PRESENTS SHALL COME, WE THE"]
[null,null,938]
[null,null,"first Monday in November, in every year, with a power"]
[null,null,"nation of Indians to invade such state, and the danger"]
[null,null,"or naval forces in the service of the united states shall"]
[null,null,"ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATION ø1231.10¿"]
[null,null,"in any term of three years; to ascertain the necessary"]
[null,null,"in time of peace, nor enter into any treaties or alliances,"]
[null,null,"and in behalf of our respective constituents, fully and"]
[null,null,"J NO WITHERSPOON, N ATHL SCUDDER, NOV . 26,"]
[null,null,"of Confederation and Perpetual Union’’ were finally agreed to in form,"]
[null,null,"sey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, North"]
[null,null,"states to the records, acts and judicial proceedings of the"]
[null,null,"of the united states in congress assembled, unless such"]
[null,null,"levied by the authority and direction of the legislatures"]
[null,null,942]
[null,null,"passing thro’ the same as may be requisite to defray the"]
[null,null,"cloathed, armed and equipped, shall march to the place"]
[null,null,"authorize us to ratify the said articles of confederation"]
[null,null,"H ENRY MARCHANT,"]
[null,null,"accompany the Articles of Confederation, which concluded with a rec-"]
[null,null,"government."]
[null,null,"1231.3ARTICLE II. Each State retains its Sovereignty, freedom"]
[null,null,"1231.7ARTICLE VI. No state without the Consent of the united"]
[null,null,"war, nor letters of marque or reprisal, except it be after"]
[null,null,"exercised in the manner following. Whenever the legisla-"]
[null,null,"whose jurisdiction as they may respect such lands, and"]
[null,null,"and to consist of one delegate from each state; and to"]
[null,null,"1231.11 ARTICLE X. The committee of the states, or any nine"]
[null,null,"singular the matters and things therein contained: And"]
[null,null,"RICHARD HENRY LEE,"]
[null,null,"the 9th of July, 1778, having been examined and the blanks filled,"]
[null,null,"1231.2ARTICLE I. The Stile of this confederacy shall be ‘‘The"]
[null,null,"be impeached or questioned in any Court, or place out"]
[null,null,"disciplined militia, sufficiently armed and accoutred, and"]
[null,null,"for the common defence, all officers of or under the rank"]
[null,null,"manner before prescribed, shall be final and conclusive;"]
[null,null,"congress, to be denominated ‘‘A Committee of the States,’’"]
[null,null,"crecy; and the yeas and nays of the delegates of each"]
[null,null,"confirmed by the legislatures of every state."]
[null,null,"1231.16 IN WITNESS whereof we have hereunto set our hands"]
[null,null,"R. R. Livingston, Mr. Dickinson, Mr. McKean, Mr. Stone, Mr. Nelson,"]
[null,null,"the Articles of Confederation, and desiring them, with all convenient"]
[null,null,"If any Person guilty of, or charged with treason, felony"]
[null,null,"or trust under the united states, or any of them, accept"]
[null,null,"which shall be supplied by the several states, in propor-"]
[null,null,"united states, and from the list of such persons each party"]
[null,null,"favour, affection or hope of reward’’: provided also that"]
[null,null,"extra number shall be raised, officered, cloathed, armed"]
[null,null,"VerDate 03-FEB-2003 09:48 Mar 04, 2003 Jkt 082300 PO 00000 Frm 00954 Fmt 0869 Sfmt 0869 D:\\DOCS\\82300.TXT SSC2 PsN: SSC2"]
[null,null,"E LBRIDGE G ERRY,"]
[null,null,"R ICHARD HUTSON,"]
[null,null,"dispatch, to authorize their delegates to ratify the same. Of these States,"]
[null,null,"people of each state shall have free ingress and regress"]
[null,null,"Freedom of speech and debate in Congress shall not"]
[null,null,"the consent of the united states in congress assembled,"]
[null,null,"member of congress shall be appointed a judge of any"]
[null,null,"tried, ‘‘well and truly to hear and determine the matter"]
[null,null,"and the officers and men so cloathed, armed and equipped"]
[null,null,"crecy; and the yeas and nays of the delegates of each"]
[null,null,"union: but no other colony shall be admitted into the"]
[null,null,"T HO. M’KEAN, FEB . 12, 1779."]
[null,null,"While the Declaration of Independence was under consideration in"]
[null,null,"lowing, viz."]
[null,null,"or other high misdemeanor in any state, shall flee from"]
[null,null,"such number only, as in the judgment of the united states,"]
[null,null,"VerDate 03-FEB-2003 09:48 Mar 04, 2003 Jkt 082300 PO 00000 Frm 00950 Fmt 0869 Sfmt 0869 D:\\DOCS\\82300.TXT SSC2 PsN: SSC2"]
[null,null,"and if either party shall neglect to attend at the day"]
[null,null,"land forces, in the service of the united states, excepting"]
[null,null,"extra number shall be raised, officered, cloathed, armed"]
[null,null,"tions of the united states in congress assembled, on all"]
[null,null,"On the part and behalf of the State of Connecticut."]
[null,null,"the Continental Congress, and before it was finally agreed upon, meas-"]
[null,null,"which was printed for the use of the members under the strictest injunc-"]
[null,null,"duties, impositions and restrictions as the inhabitants"]
[null,null,"of each state shall direct, to meet in Congress on the"]
[null,null,"or in such manner as such state shall direct, and all"]
[null,null,"eigners, as their own people are subjected to, or from"]
[null,null,"as near as may be in the same manner as is before pre-"]
[null,null,"consideration of circumstances judge proper that any state"]
[null,null,"engage in a war, nor grant letters of marque and reprisal"]
[null,null,"one Thousand seven Hundred and Seventy-eight, and in"]
[null,null,"On the part and in behalf of the State of New Jersey."]
[null,null,"was signed by the delegates of New Hampshire, Massachusetts Bay,"]
[null,null,"Providence Plantations, Connecticut, New York, New Jer-"]
[null,null,"the united states, for which he, or another for his benefit"]
[null,null,"No state shall engage in any war without the consent"]
[null,null,"shall be legal, and in what manner prizes taken by land"]
[null,null,"member of congress shall be appointed a judge of any"]
[null,null,"to serve in the office of president more than one year"]
[null,null,"The Congress of the united states shall have power"]
[null,null,"respectively represent in congress, to approve of, and to"]
[null,null,"given for that purpose, do by these presents, in the name"]
[null,null,"NICHOLAS VAN DYKE,"]
[]
[null,null,"Despite challenges, since the 1990s, there has been hope for the revival of marine life in the Black Sea. Scientists have observed signs of ecosystem restoration in its northern part, particularly due to a reduction in biogenic substances flowing from rivers, which in turn has lessened the concentration of organic compounds in the Black Sea’s shelf area. However, the Russian invasion commenced in 2014 poses a significant threat to the Black Sea’s condition. The impact of Russian occupation and warfare is multifaceted and complex, disrupting not only regional security but also altering sea transportation routes and water management and hindering decades of scientific research by Ukrainian scientists. It has emerged as a new ecological challenge."]
[null,null,"Military activities harm the nature reserve fund, leading to sea pollution from sunken equipment and damaged coastal infrastructure, and adversely affect the coastal ecosystems."]
[null,null,"With the onset of the full-scale Russian war against Ukraine, the impact on the seas has intensified. Protected areas along the Black and Azov Seas are suffering from both occupation and hostilities. All of Ukraine’s marine nature reserves, along with seven coastal national nature parks and one biosphere reserve, are currently under occupation. These areas, encompassing a diverse range of habitats like seagrass meadows, underwater seaweed forests, dunes, and lagoons, were established to safeguard the unique marine and coastal ecosystems of the Black and Azov Seas."]
[]
[]
[]
[null,null,"Unfortunately, the environmental impact of the infrastructure facilities destruction in the war is not a singular occurrence. Numerous Russian attacks along the Black Sea coastline have led to the devastation of sewage treatment plants and port infrastructures, resulting in unchecked pollution entering the sea. The monitoring group CEOBS has documented several instances of such pollution in the Dnipro-Buh estuary near Mykolaiv. Russian attacks have targeted key industrial sites on the estuary’s left bank, including the Mykolaiv Alumina Plant, where storage tanks for fuel, caustic soda, and recyclable materials were damaged. Additionally, grain terminals and a sunflower oil terminal were hit, leading to significant pollution of the estuary waters and the surrounding marine environment "]
[null,null,"The Black Sea before the war VS now"]
[]
[null,null,"However, its semi-enclosed nature and the large volume of oxygen-depleted waters render the Black Sea particularly susceptible to human activity and climate change."]
[null,null,"The destruction of the Kakhovka HPP resulted in the release of vast volumes of fresh water contaminated with fertilisers, fuel, lubricants, and sewage into the Black Sea. Following the hydroelectric power plant explosion, this polluted river water reached the Danube’s mouth, affecting over 7,300 km2 of the sea area. Scientists have noted a rapid decrease in water salinity in the Gulf of Odesa. In some coastal zones, exceedingly high nitrogen levels were recorded, indicative of sewage pollution. This significant drop in salinity has caused the demise of various marine life, including mussel colonies, fry, and fish eggs, potentially disrupting the entire coastal ecosystem. The influx of polluted fresh water has also triggered extensive algae blooms, further impacting the sea’s health."]
[null,null,"Protected areas have also suffered damage or destruction due to natural resource depletion and quarry construction. For instance, the Bakal Spit in northern Crimea, a regional landscape park, experienced illegal sand mining by the occupiers for various construction projects on the peninsula. Furthermore, large-scale infrastructure projects pose additional risks. The infamous Kerch Bridge, built in 2018, could have altered ecosystems and hydrogeological conditions in the Kerch Strait and the entire Azov Sea. The construction of this bridge virtually destroyed the natural habitats on Tuzla Island in the Kerch Strait and disrupted the migration routes of marine animals."]
[]
[null,null,"However, its semi-enclosed nature and the large volume of oxygen-depleted waters render the Black Sea particularly susceptible to human activity and climate change."]
[null,null,"The catastrophe at the Kakhovka hydroelectric power plant on June 6, 2023, resulting from the Russian detonation of the dam, significantly impacted nature conservation efforts. The flooding affected several nature reserves, including the Lower Dnipro National Nature Park, established to protect the natural floodplain complexes of the Dnipro Delta. This event posed a serious threat to the survival of various species and ecosystems."]
[null,null,"The Black Sea and its coastlines hold cherished memories for millions. For thousands of years, this region has been a nexus of trade routes between Europe and Asia, rendering it significant from both biological and geographical perspectives. It is a unique sea basin, characterised by distinct climatic conditions, natural factors, and a rich biodiversity."]
[null,null,"Military activities harm the nature reserve fund, leading to sea pollution from sunken equipment and damaged coastal infrastructure, and adversely affect the coastal ecosystems."]
[]
[null,null,"How Russia pollutes Ukrainian marine environment"]
[]
["government."]
["gated to the United States in Congress assembled."]
["No two or more states shall enter into any treaty, con-"]
["state be actually invaded by enemies, or shall have re-"]
[942]
["be final and decisive, the judgment or sentence and other"]
["number to preside, provided that no person be allowed"]
["said committee, for the exercise of which, by the articles"]
["and perpetual union. KNOW YE that we the undersigned"]
["E DWD . LANGWORTHY ."]
["This report underwent a thorough discussion in Congress, from time"]
["not completed until March 1, 1781, when the Articles were signed by the delegates"]
["moved to the state having jurisdiction of his offence."]
["by any state, except such number only, as shall be deemed"]
["bled, shall from time to time direct and appoint."]
["in behalf of such party absent or refusing; and the judg-"]
["the legislative right of any state within its own limits"]
["and equip as many of such extra number as they judge"]
["ance of the present confederation, shall be deemed and"]
["Plantations."]
["entered into between these Colonies’’; which committee was appointed"]
["1778; New Jersey on the 26th of November following; Delaware on"]
["Full faith and credit shall be given in each of these"]
["on congress, except for treason, felony, or breach of the"]
["mining on peace and war, except in the cases mentioned"]
["or more states concerning boundary, jurisdiction or any"]
["sioner, before he sits in judgment, shall take an oath"]
["legislature of each state shall appoint the regimental offi-"]
["such parts as are above excepted, to lay before the legisla-"]
["A NDREW ADAMS ."]
["ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATION ø1231.16¿"]
["and they were directed to be proposed to the legislatures of all the"]
["WARE, MARYLAND, VIRGINIA, NORTH CAROLINA, SOUTH"]
["No state shall be represented in Congress by less than"]
[940]
["or naval forces in the service of the united states shall"]
["in behalf of such party absent or refusing; and the judg-"]
["tion to the number of white inhabitants in such state;"]
["of vessels of war, to be built or purchased, or the number"]
["be made in any of them; unless such alteration be agreed"]
["D ANIEL ROBERDEAU,"]
["the next day, June 12, and consisted of a member from each Colony,"]
["CAROLINA AND GEORGIA"]
["duties or restriction shall be laid by any state, on the"]
["ing of the states, and while they act as members of the"]
["welfare, and allowed by the united states in congress as-"]
["or more states concerning boundary, jurisdiction or any"]
["alloy and value of coin struck by their own authority,"]
["ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATIONø1231.11¿"]
["within the united states, so that no period of adjournment"]
["JOHN HANCOCK,"]
[947]
["the ratification, informing them how many and what States had ratified"]
["VerDate 03-FEB-2003 09:48 Mar 04, 2003 Jkt 082300 PO 00000 Frm 00947 Fmt 0869 Sfmt 0869 D:\\DOCS\\82300.TXT SSC2 PsN: SSC2"]
["In determining questions in the united states, in Con-"]
["long as the danger shall continue, or until the united"]
["and establishing courts for receiving and determining fi-"]
["the sole and exclusive right and power of regulating the"]
["on the credit of the united states, transmitting every half"]
["ly, except such parts thereof relating to treaties, alliances"]
["ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATIONø1231.16¿"]
["J OHN DICKINSON, MAY 5, 1779,"]
["circular letter be addressed to the States whose delegates were not"]
["Providence Plantations, Connecticut, New York, New Jer-"]
["friendship and intercourse among the people of the dif-"]
["the defence of such state, or its trade; nor shall any body"]
["vacancies shall be filled up by the state which first made"]
["the controversy, so always as a major part of the judges"]
["post-offices from one state to another, throughout all the"]
["engage in a war, nor grant letters of marque and reprisal"]
["the public faith are hereby solemnly pledged."]
["the third year of the independence of America."]
["HISTORICAL BACKGROUND"]
["the 2d of March, 1781, Congress assembled under the new form of"]
["to and from any other state, and shall enjoy therein all"]
["grant any title of nobility."]
["for the common defence, all officers of or under the rank"]
["bled, shall from time to time direct and appoint."]
["of jurisdiction, shall on the petition of either party to"]
["the service of the united states—making rules for the"]
["VerDate 03-FEB-2003 09:48 Mar 04, 2003 Jkt 082300 PO 00000 Frm 00954 Fmt 0869 Sfmt 0869 D:\\DOCS\\82300.TXT SSC2 PsN: SSC2"]
["in Congress. DONE at Philadelphia in the state of Penn-"]
["On the part and in behalf of the State of Rhode Island and Providence"]
["articles and the ratification to be engrossed on parchment; which, on"]
["delegates commenced on July 9, 1778, in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, but was"]
["ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATION ø1231.7¿"]
["No vessels of war shall be kept up in time of peace"]
["of goods or commodities whatsoever—of establishing rules"]
["of each State, and the secretary of congress shall strike"]
["be necessary for managing the general affairs of the"]
["to adjourn to any time within the year, and to any place"]
["authorize us to ratify the said articles of confederation"]
["On the part and behalf of the State of Pennsylvania."]
["be appointed to prepare and digest the form of a confederation to be"]
["Whereas the Delegates of the United States of America"]
["moved to the state having jurisdiction of his offence."]
["interfere with any stipulations in treaties, entered into"]
["ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATIONø1231.8¿"]
["names as congress shall direct, shall in the presence of"]
["of the parties concerned: provided that every commis-"]
["same, in which case they shall raise, officer, cloath, arm"]
["same, unless such admission be agreed to by nine states."]
["be made in any of them; unless such alteration be agreed"]
["JNO WALTON, 24th JULY 1778,"]
["of Confederation and Perpetual Union’’ were finally agreed to in form,"]
["1231.5 ARTICLE IV. The better to secure and perpetuate mutual"]
["in their stead, for the remainder of the Year."]
["declared, and under such regulations as shall be estab-"]
["shall be legal, and in what manner prizes taken by land"]
["the united states."]
["whose jurisdiction as they may respect such lands, and"]
["which requisitions shall be binding, and thereupon the"]
["be furnished with a transcript of the said Journal, except"]
["ROBT. MORRIS,"]
[947]
["the 10th day of March next.’’ This letter was signed by the President"]
["NECTICUT, NEW YORK, NEW JERSEY, PENNSYLVANIA, DELA-"]
["Each state shall maintain its own delegates in a meet-"]
[940]
["now subsisting or that hereafter may arise between two"]
["of each State, and the secretary of congress shall strike"]
["should not raise men, or should raise a smaller number"]
["states, nor appropriate money, nor agree upon the number"]
["perpetual; nor shall any alteration at any time hereafter"]
["VerDate 03-FEB-2003 09:48 Mar 04, 2003 Jkt 082300 PO 00000 Frm 00956 Fmt 0869 Sfmt 0869 D:\\DOCS\\82300.TXT SSC2 PsN: SSC2"]
["entered into between these Colonies’’; which committee was appointed"]
["gated to the United States in Congress assembled."]
["Owner is an inhabitant, provided also that no imposition,"]
["of war may be fitted out for that occasion, and kept so"]
["that shall be incurred for the common defence or general"]
["be directed to appoint by joint consent, commissioners"]
["the sole and exclusive right and power of regulating the"]
["and equip as many of such extra number as they judge"]
["of confederation, the voice of nine states in the congress"]
["On the part and behalf of the State of Massachusetts Bay."]
["C ORNS. HARNETT,"]
["present, or being present, conceived they were not authorized to sign"]
["1231.5 ARTICLE IV. The better to secure and perpetuate mutual"]
["committee of the states."]
["or in such manner as such state shall direct, and all"]
["trial of piracies and felonies committed on the high seas"]
["be not infringed or violated—establishing and regulating"]
["ing the public expences—to borrow money, or emit bills"]
["perpetual; nor shall any alteration at any time hereafter"]
["articles of confederation and perpetual union, and all and"]
["On the part and behalf of the State of Delaware."]
["the 5th of May, 1779; Maryland on the 1st of March, 1781; and on"]
["Providence Plantations, Connecticut, New York, New Jer-"]
["not extend so far as to prevent the removal of property"]
["necessary by the united states in congress assembled, for"]
["ing to such mode as the united states in congress assem-"]
["commissioners or judges, to hear and finally determine"]
["The united states in congress assembled shall have au-"]
["The united states in congress assembled shall never"]
["and in behalf of our respective constituents, fully and"]
["R OGER SHERMAN,"]
["ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATION"]
["ø1231¿"]
["people of each state shall have free ingress and regress"]
["posed by congress to the courts of France and Spain."]
["for the common defence, all officers of or under the rank"]
["the congress shall proceed to nominate three persons out"]
["claimed to have originated antecedent to such settlement"]
["number to preside, provided that no person be allowed"]
["states in congress assembled, by the consent of nine"]
["1231.16 IN WITNESS whereof we have hereunto set our hands"]
["ment; and on the 11th of June, 1776, it was ‘‘Resolved, That a committee"]
["ratification of the Articles of Confederation, and directed a copy of the"]
["in Congress assembled did on the 15th day of November"]
[939]
[940]
["prohibiting the exportation or importation of any species"]
["and lodged among the acts of congress for the security"]
["be necessary for managing the general affairs of the"]
["be furnished with a transcript of the said Journal, except"]
["respectively represent in congress, to approve of, and to"]
[1778]
["to time, until the 15th of November, 1777; on which day, ‘‘Articles"]
["OUR NAMES, SEND GREETINGS"]
["them, at any time within the year, and to send others"]
["No state shall lay any imposts of duties, which may"]
["for deciding in all cases, what captures on land or water"]
["that number not less than seven, nor more than nine"]
["claimed under different grants of two or more states,"]
["such extra number cannot be safely spared out of the"]
["them with; provided that no power be delegated to the"]
["J AMES LOVELL ,"]
["On the part and behalf of the State of Georgia."]
["United States, and to attend Congress for that purpose on or before"]
["ereignty, trade, or any other pretence whatever."]
["receives any salary, fees or emolument of any kind."]
["and the subjects thereof, against which war has been so"]
["the last resort on appeal in all disputes and differences"]
["no state shall be deprived of territory for the benefit of"]
["consideration of circumstances judge proper that any state"]
["of a state, or any of them, at his or their request shall"]
["gress, before the assembling of the united states, in pursu-"]
["VerDate 03-FEB-2003 09:48 Mar 04, 2003 Jkt 082300 PO 00000 Frm 00956 Fmt 0869 Sfmt 0869 D:\\DOCS\\82300.TXT SSC2 PsN: SSC2"]
["with competent powers, ultimately, and in the name and behalf of the"]
["ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATIONø1231.4¿"]
["them, at any time within the year, and to send others"]
["on congress, except for treason, felony, or breach of the"]
["mining on peace and war, except in the cases mentioned"]
["ance of the parties by their lawful agents, who shall then"]
["the service of the united states—making rules for the"]
["same, in which case they shall raise, officer, cloath, arm"]
["lably observed by every state, and the union shall be"]
["T ITUS HOSMER ,"]
["be appointed to prepare and digest the form of a confederation to be"]
["not completed until March 1, 1781, when the Articles were signed by the delegates"]
["ereignty, trade, or any other pretence whatever."]
["the united states in congress assembled, or any of them,"]
["1231.9 ARTICLE VIII. All charges of war, and all other expences"]
["be directed to appoint by joint consent, commissioners"]
["the legislative right of any state within its own limits"]
["VerDate 03-FEB-2003 09:48 Mar 04, 2003 Jkt 082300 PO 00000 Frm 00953 Fmt 0869 Sfmt 0869 D:\\DOCS\\82300.TXT SSC2 PsN: SSC2"]
["and welfare of the united states, or any of them, nor"]
["JOSIAH BARTLETT, J OHN WENTWORTH, JUNR."]
["J NO WILLIAMS."]
["1778; New Jersey on the 26th of November following; Delaware on"]
[938]
["thereof respectively, provided that such restrictions shall"]
["nation of Indians to invade such state, and the danger"]
["ings and improvements thereon shall be estimated accord-"]
["of the parties concerned: provided that every commis-"]
["forces, and directing their operations."]
["be for a longer duration than the space of six Months,"]
["given for that purpose, do by these presents, in the name"]
["J OSEPH REED , JULY 22, 1778."]
["and they were directed to be proposed to the legislatures of all the"]
["from Maryland."]
["courts and magistrates of every other state."]
["prince or state, in pursuance of any treaties already pro-"]
["levied by the authority and direction of the legislatures"]
["shall have the sole and exclusive right and power of deter-"]
["post-offices from one state to another, throughout all the"]
["united states under their direction—to appoint one of their"]
["considered as a charge against the united states, for pay-"]
[946]
["[1231]"]
["government."]
["pendence of America agree to certain articles of Confed-"]
["states in congress assembled, shall send any embassy to,"]
["VerDate 03-FEB-2003 09:48 Mar 04, 2003 Jkt 082300 PO 00000 Frm 00949 Fmt 0869 Sfmt 0869 D:\\DOCS\\82300.TXT SSC2 PsN: SSC2"]
["1231.8 ARTICLE VII. When land-forces are raised by any state"]
["proceedings being in either case transmitted to congress,"]
["said grants or either of them being at the same time"]
["of a state, or any of them, at his or their request shall"]
["of congress such of the powers of congress as the united"]
["one Thousand seven Hundred and Seventy-eight, and in"]
["T HOMAS ADAMS ,"]
["On the 26th of June, 1778, Congress agreed upon the form of a"]
["reserved to each state, to recall its delegates, or any of"]
["VerDate 03-FEB-2003 09:48 Mar 04, 2003 Jkt 082300 PO 00000 Frm 00948 Fmt 0869 Sfmt 0869 D:\\DOCS\\82300.TXT SSC2 PsN: SSC2"]
["nation of Indians to invade such state, and the danger"]
["eigners, as their own people are subjected to, or from"]
["All controversies concerning the private right of soil"]
["appoint such other committees and civil officers as may"]
["states, shall from time to time think expedient to vest"]
["the World to incline the hearts of the legislatures we"]
["JNO WALTON, 24th JULY 1778,"]
["1776, the committee reported a draft of the Articles of Confederation,"]
["OUR NAMES, SEND GREETINGS"]
["the united states, for which he, or another for his benefit"]
["is to be entered into, and how long it shall continue."]
["The united states in congress assembled shall also be"]
["until the number shall be reduced to thirteen; and from"]
["The united states in congress assembled shall also have"]
["state, unless the legislature of such state shall judge that"]
["and debts contracted by, or under the authority of con-"]
["J AMES LOVELL ,"]
[]
[]
[]
[]
["The catastrophe at the Kakhovka hydroelectric power plant on June 6, 2023, resulting from the Russian detonation of the dam, significantly impacted nature conservation efforts. The flooding affected several nature reserves, including the Lower Dnipro National Nature Park, established to protect the natural floodplain complexes of the Dnipro Delta. This event posed a serious threat to the survival of various species and ecosystems."]
["Since the Russian-Ukrainian war erupted in 2014, numerous protected areas have fallen under Russian occupation. Many suffer from inadequate protection and altered statuses, while others are directly impacted by the actions of the occupiers. A notable example is the militarisation of Crimea, including military exercises in or near protected zones. The Russians have conducted extensive military drills near Cape Chauda on the Kerch Peninsula, adversely affecting the steppe, coastal, and marine ecosystems of the Opuk Nature Reserve. In areas of intense militarisation and training, a significant amount of ammunition has been used, particularly at sea, causing harm to living organisms and contaminating soil, air, and water."]
[]
[]
["Certain territories, like the Kinburn Spit or Dzharylhach Island in the Black Sea, face direct hostilities or have Russian troops present. The building of fortifications and trenches, along with the movement of military equipment and frequent explosions, are damaging vegetation and soil. Fires, ignited both by combat and other factors, add to the devastation. Occupation exacerbates the issue, with the occupiers mining lands and destroying firefighting equipment. The Kinburn Spit alone witnessed 131 fires in the first year of the full-scale invasion, marking 2022 as the year with the largest fires in recent decades. These fires devastated over 5,000 hectares, impacting steppe and coastal ecosystems and the nesting sites of around 100 bird species.Certain territories, like the Kinburn Spit or Dzharylhach Island in the Black Sea, face direct hostilities or have Russian troops present. The building of fortifications and trenches, along with the movement of military equipment and frequent explosions, are damaging vegetation and soil. Fires, ignited both by combat and other factors, add to the devastation. Occupation exacerbates the issue, with the occupiers mining lands and destroying firefighting equipment. The Kinburn Spit alone witnessed 131 fires in the first year of the full-scale invasion, marking 2022 as the year with the largest fires in recent decades. These fires devastated over 5,000 hectares, impacting steppe and coastal ecosystems and the nesting sites of around 100 bird species."]
["The Black Sea before the war VS now"]
["With the onset of the full-scale Russian war against Ukraine, the impact on the seas has intensified. Protected areas along the Black and Azov Seas are suffering from both occupation and hostilities. All of Ukraine’s marine nature reserves, along with seven coastal national nature parks and one biosphere reserve, are currently under occupation. These areas, encompassing a diverse range of habitats like seagrass meadows, underwater seaweed forests, dunes, and lagoons, were established to safeguard the unique marine and coastal ecosystems of the Black and Azov Seas."]
["Together with a marine biologist and a specialist from the climate department at NGO Ecoaction, Sofiia Sadohurska, we dive into details about the uniqueness of the Black Sea, why its biodiversity needs to be protected, and how the war affects its ecosystem. We will also discover if there is any hope for the sea’s restoration and how to overcome the consequences of war."]
["The Black Sea and its coastlines hold cherished memories for millions. For thousands of years, this region has been a nexus of trade routes between Europe and Asia, rendering it significant from both biological and geographical perspectives. It is a unique sea basin, characterised by distinct climatic conditions, natural factors, and a rich biodiversity."]
["Together with a marine biologist and a specialist from the climate department at NGO Ecoaction, Sofiia Sadohurska, we dive into details about the uniqueness of the Black Sea, why its biodiversity needs to be protected, and how the war affects its ecosystem. We will also discover if there is any hope for the sea’s restoration and how to overcome the consequences of war."]
[]
["In 1996, the six coastal states of the Black Sea signed the Strategic Action Plan for the Environmental Protection and Rehabilitation of the Black Sea. This plan was necessitated by the alarming destruction of the Black Sea’s unique natural complexes due to human impact. Today, the urgency to preserve the Black Sea is greater than ever as it faces the repercussions of the Russian invasion. How is the war affecting the Black Sea, and what measures can be taken to mitigate the consequences for both nature and humanity?"]
["The Black Sea is an extraordinary body of water, distinct from other seas and oceans. Geographically, it is a semi-enclosed sea, completely encircled by land, with limited connection to the World Ocean through a system of straits. It receives fresh water from multiple rivers, resulting in the Black Sea’s salinity being almost half that of ocean waters. Another unique feature of the Black Sea is its status as the world’s largest meromictic basin, meaning its upper water layer does not mix with the lower, oxygen-depleted layer rich in hydrogen sulphide, which accounts for over 80% of the sea’s total volume. Consequently, its rich biodiversity is confined to the oxygen-rich upper layer."]
[]
["Military activities harm the nature reserve fund, leading to sea pollution from sunken equipment and damaged coastal infrastructure, and adversely affect the coastal ecosystems."]
[]
["How Russia pollutes Ukrainian marine environment"]
["Mr. Hewes, Mr. E. Rutledge, and Mr. Gwinnett. On the 12th of July,"]
["TO ALL TO WHOM THESE PRESENTS SHALL COME, WE THE"]
["property of the united states, or either of them."]
["specifying accurately the purposes for which the same"]
["ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATION ø1231.10¿"]
["shall alternately strike out one, the petitioners beginning,"]
["appoint such other committees and civil officers as may"]
["and equipped in the same manner as the quota of such"]
["or military operations as in their judgment require se-"]
["E LBRIDGE G ERRY,"]
["J OHN BANISTER,"]
["VerDate 03-FEB-2003 09:48 Mar 04, 2003 Jkt 082300 PO 00000 Frm 00945 Fmt 0869 Sfmt 0869 D:\\DOCS\\82300.TXT SSC2 PsN: SSC2"]
["each other, against all force offered to, or attacks made"]
["the general interest of the united states, delegates shall"]
["a declaration of war by the united states in Congress"]
["the legislative power of the respective states shall be re-"]
["in question, according to the best of his judgment without"]
["moneys so borrowed or emitted—to build and equip a"]
["state on any question shall be entered on the Journal,"]
["in Congress. DONE at Philadelphia in the state of Penn-"]
["On the part and behalf of the State of Maryland."]
["dispatch, to authorize their delegates to ratify the same. Of these States,"]
["lowing, viz."]
["first Monday in November, in every year, with a power"]
["stores, a due number of field-pieces and tents, and a prop-"]
["1231.10ARTICLE IX. The united states in congress assembled,"]
["or superior court of the state, where the cause shall be"]
["regimental officers—appointing all the officers of the"]
["a soldier like manner, at the expence of the united states;"]
["questions which by this confederation are submitted to"]
["F RANCIS DANA,"]
["ures were taken for the establishment of a constitutional form of govern-"]
["1 Adopted by the Continental Congress on November 15, 1777, while meeting"]
["thereof respectively, provided that such restrictions shall"]
["of any present, emolument, office or title of any kind"]
["a declaration of war by the united states in Congress"]
["state in controversy, and a day assigned for the appear-"]
["claimed to have originated antecedent to such settlement"]
["consideration of circumstances judge proper that any state"]
["1231.12ARTICLE XI. Canada acceding to this confederation, and"]
["the third year of the independence of America."]
["[1231]"]
["Rhode Island and Providence Plantations, Connecticut, New York, Penn-"]
["gated to the United States in Congress assembled."]
["In determining questions in the united states, in Con-"]
["state be actually invaded by enemies, or shall have re-"]
["exercised in the manner following. Whenever the legisla-"]
["proceedings being in either case transmitted to congress,"]
["VerDate 03-FEB-2003 09:48 Mar 04, 2003 Jkt 082300 PO 00000 Frm 00952 Fmt 0869 Sfmt 0869 D:\\DOCS\\82300.TXT SSC2 PsN: SSC2"]
["to adjourn to any time within the year, and to any place"]
["the public faith are hereby solemnly pledged."]
["D ANIEL ROBERDEAU,"]
["R. R. Livingston, Mr. Dickinson, Mr. McKean, Mr. Stone, Mr. Nelson,"]
["and Seventy seven, and in the Second Year of the Inde-"]
["Full faith and credit shall be given in each of these"]
["or receive any embassy from, or enter into any conference,"]
["bled, shall from time to time direct and appoint."]
["congress shall name three persons out of each of the"]
["the legislative right of any state within its own limits"]
["appointed, and within the time agreed on by the united"]
["gress, before the assembling of the united states, in pursu-"]
["the World to incline the hearts of the legislatures we"]
["VerDate 03-FEB-2003 09:48 Mar 04, 2003 Jkt 082300 PO 00000 Frm 00957 Fmt 0869 Sfmt 0869 D:\\DOCS\\82300.TXT SSC2 PsN: SSC2"]
["and in that event they were to become conclusive. On the 17th of Novem-"]
["ferent states in this union, the free inhabitants of each"]
["peace."]
["specifying accurately the purposes for which the same"]
["other cause whatever, which authority shall always be"]
["commissioners or judges, to hear and finally determine"]
["legislature of each state shall appoint the regimental offi-"]
["of land or sea forces to be raised, nor appoint a com-"]
["ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATIONø1231.16¿"]
["T HO. M’KEAN, FEB . 12, 1779."]
["of Congress and sent, with a copy of the articles, to each State legisla-"]
["1231.3ARTICLE II. Each State retains its Sovereignty, freedom"]
["shall be capable of being a delegate for more than three"]
["ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATIONø1231.8¿"]
[941]
["ment and sentence of the court to be appointed, in the"]
["and to consist of one delegate from each state; and to"]
["of land or sea forces to be raised, nor appoint a com-"]
["ly, except such parts thereof relating to treaties, alliances"]
["WILLIAM DUER,"]
["RICHARD HENRY LEE,"]
["1231.1ACT OF CONFEDERATION OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA"]
["each other, against all force offered to, or attacks made"]
["If any Person guilty of, or charged with treason, felony"]
["the consent of the united states in congress assembled,"]
["vided that no treaty of commerce shall be made whereby"]
["united states, and from the list of such persons each party"]
["year to the respective states an account of the sums of"]
["extra number shall be raised, officered, cloathed, armed"]
["1231.16 IN WITNESS whereof we have hereunto set our hands"]
["S AMUEL ADAMS,"]
["W ILLIAM HENRY DRAYTON,"]
["dispatch, to authorize their delegates to ratify the same. Of these States,"]
["Justice excepted, shall be entitled to all privileges and"]
["Freedom of speech and debate in Congress shall not"]
["war, nor letters of marque or reprisal, except it be after"]
["trial of piracies and felonies committed on the high seas"]
["tried, ‘‘well and truly to hear and determine the matter"]
["cers, raise the men and cloath, arm and equip them in"]
["crecy; and the yeas and nays of the delegates of each"]
["E LBRIDGE G ERRY,"]
["T HO. M’KEAN, FEB . 12, 1779."]
[937]
["Carolina, South Carolina and Georgia in the Words fol-"]
["of each state shall direct, to meet in Congress on the"]
["war, nor letters of marque or reprisal, except it be after"]
["ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATION ø1231.10¿"]
["said grants or either of them being at the same time"]
["land forces, in the service of the united states, excepting"]
["of the united states assembled is requisite."]
["tions of the united states in congress assembled, on all"]
["H ENRY MARCHANT,"]
["the Continental Congress, and before it was finally agreed upon, meas-"]
["UNDERSIGNED DELEGATES OF THE STATES AFFIXED TO"]
["duties, impositions and restrictions as the inhabitants"]
["or trust under the united states, or any of them, accept"]
["for the common defence, all officers of or under the rank"]
["gress to the legislative or executive authority of the other"]
["of weights and measures throughout the united states—"]
["consideration of circumstances judge proper that any state"]
["ment and satisfaction whereof the said united states, and"]
["one Thousand seven Hundred and Seventy-eight, and in"]
["namely: Mr. Bartlett, Mr. S. Adams, Mr. Hopkins, Mr. Sherman, Mr."]
["was signed by the delegates of New Hampshire, Massachusetts Bay,"]
["Carolina, South Carolina and Georgia in the Words fol-"]
["the united states, for which he, or another for his benefit"]
["of the united states in congress assembled, unless such"]
["mining the matter in question: but if they cannot agree,"]
["be final and decisive, the judgment or sentence and other"]
["expences of the said office—appointing all officers of the"]
["The Congress of the united states shall have power"]
["1231.15AND WHEREAS it has pleased the Great Governor of"]
["D ANIEL ROBERDEAU,"]
["their delegates to ratify the same in the Congress of the United States;"]
["in the Year of our Lord One Thousand Seven Hundred"]
["shall be capable of being a delegate for more than three"]
["prince or state, in pursuance of any treaties already pro-"]
["ing to such mode as the united states in congress assem-"]
["names shall be so drawn or any five of them, shall be"]
["Indians, not members of any of the states, provided that"]
["of vessels of war, to be built or purchased, or the number"]
["and debts contracted by, or under the authority of con-"]
["NICHOLAS VAN DYKE,"]
["E DWD . LANGWORTHY ."]
["On the 26th of June, 1778, Congress agreed upon the form of a"]
["ferent states in this union, the free inhabitants of each"]
["In determining questions in the united states, in Con-"]
["such state be infested by pirates, in which case vessels"]
["or more states concerning boundary, jurisdiction or any"]
["manner before prescribed, shall be final and conclusive;"]
["which requisitions shall be binding, and thereupon the"]
["and shall publish the Journal of their proceedings month-"]
[946]
["On the part and behalf of the State of Virginia."]
["the 10th day of March next.’’ This letter was signed by the President"]
["mutual and general welfare, binding themselves to assist"]
["two, nor by more than seven Members; and no person"]
["or receive any embassy from, or enter into any conference,"]
["embassadors—entering into treaties and alliances, pro-"]
["in behalf of such party absent or refusing; and the judg-"]
["on the credit of the united states, transmitting every half"]
["of vessels of war, to be built or purchased, or the number"]
["of them, shall be authorized to execute, in the recess"]
["F RAS LEWIS,"]
["H ENRY LAURENS,"]
["ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATION 1"]
["of these states, paupers, vagabonds and fugitives from"]
["federation or alliance whatever between them, without"]
["that shall be incurred for the common defence or general"]
["and reprisal in times of peace—appointing courts for the"]
["alloy and value of coin struck by their own authority,"]
["shall march to the place appointed, and within the time"]
["of the united states assembled is requisite."]
["S AMUEL ADAMS,"]
["W ILLIAM HENRY DRAYTON,"]
["VerDate 03-FEB-2003 09:48 Mar 04, 2003 Jkt 082300 PO 00000 Frm 00946 Fmt 0869 Sfmt 0869 D:\\DOCS\\82300.TXT SSC2 PsN: SSC2"]
["a firm league of friendship with each other, for their com-"]
["duties or restriction shall be laid by any state, on the"]
["any state grant commissions to any ships or vessels of"]
["trial of piracies and felonies committed on the high seas"]
["the states which passed such grants are adjusted, the"]
["ing the public expences—to borrow money, or emit bills"]
[944]
["singular the matters and things therein contained: And"]
["R OGER SHERMAN,"]
["and in that event they were to become conclusive. On the 17th of Novem-"]
["TO ALL TO WHOM THESE PRESENTS SHALL COME, WE THE"]
["be annually appointed in such manner as the legislature"]
["necessary by the united states in congress assembled, for"]
["VerDate 03-FEB-2003 09:48 Mar 04, 2003 Jkt 082300 PO 00000 Frm 00950 Fmt 0869 Sfmt 0869 D:\\DOCS\\82300.TXT SSC2 PsN: SSC2"]
["the controversy, so always as a major part of the judges"]
["or by that of the respective states—fixing the standard"]
["The united states in congress assembled shall never"]
["considered as a charge against the united states, for pay-"]
["R OGER SHERMAN,"]
["the next day, June 12, and consisted of a member from each Colony,"]
["1 Adopted by the Continental Congress on November 15, 1777, while meeting"]
["sey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, North"]
["state; nor shall any person holding any office of profit"]
["shall provide and constantly have ready for use, in public"]
["a hearing, notice thereof shall be given by order of con-"]
["of jurisdiction, shall on the petition of either party to"]
["passing thro’ the same as may be requisite to defray the"]
["VerDate 03-FEB-2003 09:48 Mar 04, 2003 Jkt 082300 PO 00000 Frm 00954 Fmt 0869 Sfmt 0869 D:\\DOCS\\82300.TXT SSC2 PsN: SSC2"]
["confirmed by the legislatures of every state."]
["J NO HARVIE ,"]
["United States, and if approved by them, they were advised to authorize"]
["and independence, and every Power, Jurisdiction and"]
["two, nor by more than seven Members; and no person"]
["No state shall engage in any war without the consent"]
["war, nor letters of marque or reprisal, except it be after"]
["nounce sentence, or judgment, which shall in like manner"]
["be necessary for managing the general affairs of the"]
["assent to the same; nor shall a question on any other"]
["authorize us to ratify the said articles of confederation"]
["singular the matters and things therein contained: And"]
["ROBT. MORRIS,"]
["ture."]
["in Congress assembled did on the 15th day of November"]
["committee of the states."]
["by the united states in congress assembled with any king,"]
["ing to such mode as the united states in congress assem-"]
["ment and sentence of the court to be appointed, in the"]
["regulating the trade and managing all affairs with the"]
["be for a longer duration than the space of six Months,"]
["1231.13ARTICLE XII. All bills of credit emitted, monies borrowed"]
["T HOMAS ADAMS ,"]
["EDWD TELFAIR,"]
["mon defence, the security of their Liberties, and their"]
["friendship and intercourse among the people of the dif-"]
["states in congress assembled, shall send any embassy to,"]
["lished by the united states in congress assembled, unless"]
["now subsisting or that hereafter may arise between two"]
["to be administered by one of the judges of the supreme"]
["tion to the number of white inhabitants in such state;"]
["1231.11 ARTICLE X. The committee of the states, or any nine"]
["VerDate 03-FEB-2003 09:48 Mar 04, 2003 Jkt 082300 PO 00000 Frm 00955 Fmt 0869 Sfmt 0869 D:\\DOCS\\82300.TXT SSC2 PsN: SSC2"]
["On the part and behalf of the State of South Carolina."]
["United States, and to attend Congress for that purpose on or before"]
["people of each state shall have free ingress and regress"]
["No state shall be represented in Congress by less than"]
["sembled, shall be defrayed out of a common treasury,"]
["embassadors—entering into treaties and alliances, pro-"]
["of each State, and the secretary of congress shall strike"]
["and the officers and men so cloathed, armed and equipped"]
["states, nor appropriate money, nor agree upon the number"]
["JOHN HANCOCK,"]
["J AS DUANE,"]
[935]
["ø1231¿"]
["Owner is an inhabitant, provided also that no imposition,"]
["No two or more states shall enter into any treaty, con-"]
["VerDate 03-FEB-2003 09:48 Mar 04, 2003 Jkt 082300 PO 00000 Frm 00950 Fmt 0869 Sfmt 0869 D:\\DOCS\\82300.TXT SSC2 PsN: SSC2"]
["mining the matter in question: but if they cannot agree,"]
["the sole and exclusive right and power of regulating the"]
["VerDate 03-FEB-2003 09:48 Mar 04, 2003 Jkt 082300 PO 00000 Frm 00953 Fmt 0869 Sfmt 0869 D:\\DOCS\\82300.TXT SSC2 PsN: SSC2"]
["of confederation, the voice of nine states in the congress"]
["On the part and behalf of the State of Connecticut."]
["H ENRY LAURENS,"]
["1231.1ACT OF CONFEDERATION OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA"]
["1231.4 ARTICLE III. The said states hereby severally enter into"]
["by any state, except such number only, as shall be deemed"]
["states in congress assembled can be consulted: nor shall"]
["embassadors—entering into treaties and alliances, pro-"]
["to be administered by one of the judges of the supreme"]
["states, and to appropriate and apply the same for defray-"]
["ance of the present confederation, shall be deemed and"]
["articles of confederation and perpetual union, and all and"]
["On the part and in behalf of the State of New Jersey."]
["With the onset of the full-scale Russian war against Ukraine, the impact on the seas has intensified. Protected areas along the Black and Azov Seas are suffering from both occupation and hostilities. All of Ukraine’s marine nature reserves, along with seven coastal national nature parks and one biosphere reserve, are currently under occupation. These areas, encompassing a diverse range of habitats like seagrass meadows, underwater seaweed forests, dunes, and lagoons, were established to safeguard the unique marine and coastal ecosystems of the Black and Azov Seas."]
["Together with a marine biologist and a specialist from the climate department at NGO Ecoaction, Sofiia Sadohurska, we dive into details about the uniqueness of the Black Sea, why its biodiversity needs to be protected, and how the war affects its ecosystem. We will also discover if there is any hope for the sea’s restoration and how to overcome the consequences of war."]
[]
[]
[]
["Since the Russian-Ukrainian war erupted in 2014, numerous protected areas have fallen under Russian occupation. Many suffer from inadequate protection and altered statuses, while others are directly impacted by the actions of the occupiers. A notable example is the militarisation of Crimea, including military exercises in or near protected zones. The Russians have conducted extensive military drills near Cape Chauda on the Kerch Peninsula, adversely affecting the steppe, coastal, and marine ecosystems of the Opuk Nature Reserve. In areas of intense militarisation and training, a significant amount of ammunition has been used, particularly at sea, causing harm to living organisms and contaminating soil, air, and water."]
["Impact of the war on seas and coastal Areas"]
["Scientists estimate that oil slicks have covered tens of thousands of square kilometres of Ukraine’s marine protected areas. This oil layer impedes oxygen penetration into the water, inflicting immense damage on marine life and often leading to mass fatalities. Oil and lubricants are particularly toxic to aquatic life, especially the tiny organisms in plankton and neuston (organisms living near the water’s surface). Oil residues can linger on the sea surface for extended periods, drifting with currents, washing ashore, or sinking to the seabed, posing long-term ecological challenges."]
[]
["Additional pollution in the sea comes from submerged military equipment, ships, and ammunition, releasing chemical compounds, rocket fuel residues, and heavy metals into the water. Sunken ships and aircraft are also significant sources of oil pollution. Due to the presence of Russian mines, scientists’ access to the Black Sea is restricted, but satellite imagery provides vital data on oil and other pollutants."]
["Additional pollution in the sea comes from submerged military equipment, ships, and ammunition, releasing chemical compounds, rocket fuel residues, and heavy metals into the water. Sunken ships and aircraft are also significant sources of oil pollution. Due to the presence of Russian mines, scientists’ access to the Black Sea is restricted, but satellite imagery provides vital data on oil and other pollutants."]
[]
[]
[]
["In 1996, the six coastal states of the Black Sea signed the Strategic Action Plan for the Environmental Protection and Rehabilitation of the Black Sea. This plan was necessitated by the alarming destruction of the Black Sea’s unique natural complexes due to human impact. Today, the urgency to preserve the Black Sea is greater than ever as it faces the repercussions of the Russian invasion. How is the war affecting the Black Sea, and what measures can be taken to mitigate the consequences for both nature and humanity?"]
[]
[]
[]
[]
[]
[]
["was signed by the delegates of New Hampshire, Massachusetts Bay,"]
["ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATIONø1231.4¿"]
["of Congress, and the members of congress shall be pro-"]
["is so imminent as not to admit of a delay, till the united"]
["be directed to appoint by joint consent, commissioners"]
["sioner, before he sits in judgment, shall take an oath"]
["sums of Money to be raised for the service of the united"]
["state on any question shall be entered on the Journal,"]
["entirely ratify and confirm each and every of the said"]
["C ORNS. HARNETT,"]
["United States, and if approved by them, they were advised to authorize"]
["North Carolina ratified on the 21st and Georgia on the 24th of July,"]
["courts and magistrates of every other state."]
["of any present, emolument, office or title of any kind"]
["of the several states within the time agreed upon by the"]
["that number not less than seven, nor more than nine"]
["united states, and exacting such postage on the papers"]
["appointed, and within the time agreed on by the united"]
[945]
["J OHN COLLINS."]
["T HOS. HEYWARD , JUNR."]
["VerDate 03-FEB-2003 09:48 Mar 04, 2003 Jkt 082300 PO 00000 Frm 00946 Fmt 0869 Sfmt 0869 D:\\DOCS\\82300.TXT SSC2 PsN: SSC2"]
["not extend so far as to prevent the removal of property"]
["or receive any embassy from, or enter into any conference,"]
["by the united states in congress assembled with any king,"]
["tive or executive authority or lawful agent of any state"]
["appointed, without showing reasons, which congress shall"]
["and the officers and men so cloathed, armed and equipped"]
["of congress such of the powers of congress as the united"]
["same, unless such admission be agreed to by nine states."]
["J OHN BANISTER,"]
["the Continental Congress, and before it was finally agreed upon, meas-"]
["United States of America.’’"]
["Full faith and credit shall be given in each of these"]
["stores, a due number of field-pieces and tents, and a prop-"]
["mining on peace and war, except in the cases mentioned"]
["authority of such court, or to appear or defend their claim"]
["number to preside, provided that no person be allowed"]
["assent to the same; nor shall a question on any other"]
["the World to incline the hearts of the legislatures we"]
["A NDREW ADAMS ."]
["1776, the committee reported a draft of the Articles of Confederation,"]
["in Congress assembled did on the 15th day of November"]
["or other high misdemeanor in any state, shall flee from"]
["first Monday in November, in every year, with a power"]
["tion to the value of all land within each state, granted"]
["or naval forces in the service of the united states shall"]
[943]
["and equipped in the same manner as the quota of such"]
["in time of peace, nor enter into any treaties or alliances,"]
["F RANCIS DANA,"]
["D ANIEL ROBERDEAU,"]
[936]
["TWEEN THE STATES OF NEWHAMPSHIRE, MASSACHUSETTS-"]
["of Congress, and the members of congress shall be pro-"]
["of the united states in congress assembled, unless such"]
["of the said courts."]
["favour, affection or hope of reward’’: provided also that"]
["navy—to agree upon the number of land forces, and to"]
["state on any question shall be entered on the Journal,"]
["authorize us to ratify the said articles of confederation"]
["on all questions, which by the said confederation are sub-"]
["accompany the Articles of Confederation, which concluded with a rec-"]
["with competent powers, ultimately, and in the name and behalf of the"]
["VerDate 03-FEB-2003 09:48 Mar 04, 2003 Jkt 082300 PO 00000 Frm 00947 Fmt 0869 Sfmt 0869 D:\\DOCS\\82300.TXT SSC2 PsN: SSC2"]
["them, at any time within the year, and to send others"]
["declared, and under such regulations as shall be estab-"]
["shall have the sole and exclusive right and power of deter-"]
["as near as may be in the same manner as is before pre-"]
["the service of the united states—making rules for the"]
["and welfare of the united states, or any of them, nor"]
["on all questions, which by the said confederation are sub-"]
["A NDREW ADAMS ."]
["the 9th of July, 1778, having been examined and the blanks filled,"]
["not completed until March 1, 1781, when the Articles were signed by the delegates"]
["be impeached or questioned in any Court, or place out"]
["the united states in congress assembled, or any of them,"]
["vacancies shall be filled up by the state which first made"]
["be directed to appoint by joint consent, commissioners"]
["regulating the trade and managing all affairs with the"]
["than its quota, and that any other state should raise"]
["them with; provided that no power be delegated to the"]
["the third year of the independence of America."]
["J NO WILLIAMS."]
["ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATIONø1231¿"]
[938]
["or trust under the united states, or any of them, accept"]
["nation of Indians to invade such state, and the danger"]
["VerDate 03-FEB-2003 09:48 Mar 04, 2003 Jkt 082300 PO 00000 Frm 00951 Fmt 0869 Sfmt 0869 D:\\DOCS\\82300.TXT SSC2 PsN: SSC2"]
["of the parties concerned: provided that every commis-"]
["and welfare of the united states, or any of them, nor"]
["be for a longer duration than the space of six Months,"]
["and in behalf of our respective constituents, fully and"]
["EDWD TELFAIR,"]
["and they were directed to be proposed to the legislatures of all the"]
["delegates commenced on July 9, 1778, in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, but was"]
["courts and magistrates of every other state."]
["interfere with any stipulations in treaties, entered into"]
["levied by the authority and direction of the legislatures"]
["and if either party shall neglect to attend at the day"]
["post-offices from one state to another, throughout all the"]
["to adjourn to any time within the year, and to any place"]
["considered as a charge against the united states, for pay-"]
["H ENRY MARCHANT,"]
["While the Declaration of Independence was under consideration in"]
["government."]
["moved to the state having jurisdiction of his offence."]
["states in congress assembled, shall send any embassy to,"]
["shall have the sole and exclusive right and power of deter-"]
["tive or executive authority or lawful agent of any state"]
["nounce sentence, or judgment, which shall in like manner"]
["a soldier like manner, at the expence of the united states;"]
["of them, shall be authorized to execute, in the recess"]
["T ITUS HOSMER ,"]
["RICHARD HENRY LEE,"]
["which was printed for the use of the members under the strictest injunc-"]
["1231.2ARTICLE I. The Stile of this confederacy shall be ‘‘The"]
["of each state shall direct, to meet in Congress on the"]
["shall provide and constantly have ready for use, in public"]
["shall be legal, and in what manner prizes taken by land"]
["and if any of the parties shall refuse to submit to the"]
["make requisition from each state for its quota, in propor-"]
["mander-in-chief of the army or navy, unless nine states"]
["1231.15AND WHEREAS it has pleased the Great Governor of"]
["ROBT. MORRIS,"]
["Mr. Hewes, Mr. E. Rutledge, and Mr. Gwinnett. On the 12th of July,"]
["‘‘ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATION AND PERPETUAL UNION BE-"]
["If any Person guilty of, or charged with treason, felony"]
["No state shall engage in any war without the consent"]
["which shall be supplied by the several states, in propor-"]
["member of congress shall be appointed a judge of any"]
["VerDate 03-FEB-2003 09:48 Mar 04, 2003 Jkt 082300 PO 00000 Frm 00952 Fmt 0869 Sfmt 0869 D:\\DOCS\\82300.TXT SSC2 PsN: SSC2"]
["should not raise men, or should raise a smaller number"]
["admitted into, and entitled to all the advantages of this"]
["E LBRIDGE G ERRY,"]
["VerDate 03-FEB-2003 09:48 Mar 04, 2003 Jkt 082300 PO 00000 Frm 00956 Fmt 0869 Sfmt 0869 D:\\DOCS\\82300.TXT SSC2 PsN: SSC2"]
["VerDate 03-FEB-2003 09:48 Mar 04, 2003 Jkt 082300 PO 00000 Frm 00945 Fmt 0869 Sfmt 0869 D:\\DOCS\\82300.TXT SSC2 PsN: SSC2"]
["gated to the United States in Congress assembled."]
["be impeached or questioned in any Court, or place out"]
["and the subjects thereof, against which war has been so"]
["member of congress shall be appointed a judge of any"]
["the congress of the united states, be finally determined"]
["moneys so borrowed or emitted—to build and equip a"]
["and equipped in the same manner as the quota of such"]
["determinations of the united states in congress assembled,"]
["T HO. M’KEAN, FEB . 12, 1779."]
["articles and the ratification to be engrossed on parchment; which, on"]
["lowing, viz."]
["1231.5 ARTICLE IV. The better to secure and perpetuate mutual"]
["in congress assembled, shall be deemed requisite to garri-"]
["or in such manner as such state shall direct, and all"]
["appointed, without showing reasons, which congress shall"]
["ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATION ø1231.10¿"]
["nor coin money, nor regulate the value thereof, nor ascer-"]
["tions of the united states in congress assembled, on all"]
["T ITUS HOSMER ,"]
["the Continental Congress, and before it was finally agreed upon, meas-"]
[936]
["duties, impositions and restrictions as the inhabitants"]
["state; nor shall any person holding any office of profit"]
["or in such manner as such state shall direct, and all"]
["congress be drawn out by lot, and the persons whose"]
["scribed for deciding disputes respecting territorial jurisdic-"]
["naval forces, and commissioning all officers whatever in"]
["states, shall from time to time think expedient to vest"]
["the third year of the independence of America."]
["JNO WALTON, 24th JULY 1778,"]
["Rhode Island and Providence Plantations, Connecticut, New York, Penn-"]
["September 30, 1777, to June 27, 1778. Ratification of the Articles by the respective"]
["the united states, for which he, or another for his benefit"]
["No state shall lay any imposts of duties, which may"]
["shall be legal, and in what manner prizes taken by land"]
["who shall hear the cause shall agree in the determination:"]
["to serve in the office of president more than one year"]
["The Congress of the united states shall have power"]
["given for that purpose, do by these presents, in the name"]
["D ANIEL ROBERDEAU,"]
["ment; and on the 11th of June, 1776, it was ‘‘Resolved, That a committee"]
["and Seventy seven, and in the Second Year of the Inde-"]
["of the state from which he fled, be delivered up and re-"]
["posed by congress to the courts of France and Spain."]
["in congress assembled, shall be deemed requisite to garri-"]
["VerDate 03-FEB-2003 09:48 Mar 04, 2003 Jkt 082300 PO 00000 Frm 00951 Fmt 0869 Sfmt 0869 D:\\DOCS\\82300.TXT SSC2 PsN: SSC2"]
["or cause, the court shall nevertheless proceed to pro-"]
["can be safely spared. And the officers and men so"]
["crecy; and the yeas and nays of the delegates of each"]
["W ILLIAM ELLERY,"]
["E DWD . LANGWORTHY ."]
["1776, the committee reported a draft of the Articles of Confederation,"]
["ferent states in this union, the free inhabitants of each"]
["them, at any time within the year, and to send others"]
["of war may be fitted out for that occasion, and kept so"]
["for deciding in all cases, what captures on land or water"]
["exercised in the manner following. Whenever the legisla-"]
["navy—to agree upon the number of land forces, and to"]
["cers, raise the men and cloath, arm and equip them in"]
["VerDate 03-FEB-2003 09:48 Mar 04, 2003 Jkt 082300 PO 00000 Frm 00954 Fmt 0869 Sfmt 0869 D:\\DOCS\\82300.TXT SSC2 PsN: SSC2"]
["inviolably observed by the states we respectively represent"]
["RICHARD HENRY LEE,"]
["lowing, viz."]
["CAROLINA AND GEORGIA"]
[939]
["disciplined militia, sufficiently armed and accoutred, and"]
["the last resort on appeal in all disputes and differences"]
["manner before prescribed, shall be final and conclusive;"]
["consideration of circumstances judge proper that any state"]
["mander-in-chief of the army or navy, unless nine states"]
["J AMES LOVELL ,"]
["G OUVR MORRIS ."]
["R. R. Livingston, Mr. Dickinson, Mr. McKean, Mr. Stone, Mr. Nelson,"]
["right, which is not by this confederation expressly dele-"]
["property of the united states, or either of them."]
["assembled, and then only against the kingdom or state"]
["sembled, shall be defrayed out of a common treasury,"]
["of jurisdiction, shall on the petition of either party to"]
["of weights and measures throughout the united states—"]
["same, in which case they shall raise, officer, cloath, arm"]
["joining in the measures of the united states, shall be"]
["T ITUS HOSMER ,"]
["R ICHARD HUTSON,"]
["dispatch, to authorize their delegates to ratify the same. Of these States,"]
["ereignty, trade, or any other pretence whatever."]
["Freedom of speech and debate in Congress shall not"]
["state respectively by whom such forces shall be raised,"]
["nally appeals in all cases of captures, provided that no"]
[943]
["year to the respective states an account of the sums of"]
["1231.14ARTICLE XIII. Every state shall abide by the determina-"]
["our respective constituents, that they shall abide by the"]
["NICHOLAS VAN DYKE,"]
["VerDate 03-FEB-2003 09:48 Mar 04, 2003 Jkt 082300 PO 00000 Frm 00945 Fmt 0869 Sfmt 0869 D:\\DOCS\\82300.TXT SSC2 PsN: SSC2"]
["Carolina, South Carolina and Georgia in the Words fol-"]
["agreement, alliance or treaty with any King, prince or"]
["such number only, as in the judgment of the united states,"]
["ings and improvements thereon shall be estimated accord-"]
["and if either party shall neglect to attend at the day"]
["regimental officers—appointing all the officers of the"]
["in time of peace, nor enter into any treaties or alliances,"]
["respectively represent in congress, to approve of, and to"]
["O LIVER WOLCOTT ,"]
["the Continental Congress, and before it was finally agreed upon, meas-"]
["at York, Pennsylvania, which served as the site of the National Capital from"]
["the privileges of trade and commerce, subject to the same"]
["is to be entered into, and how long it shall continue."]
["state respectively by whom such forces shall be raised,"]
["judge sufficient, or being present shall refuse to strike,"]
["as near as may be in the same manner as is before pre-"]
["united states under their direction—to appoint one of their"]
["ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATION ø1231.15¿"]
["determinations of the united states in congress assembled,"]
["On the part and behalf of the State of North Carolina."]
["was signed by the delegates of New Hampshire, Massachusetts Bay,"]
["Whereas the Delegates of the United States of America"]
["the united states, for which he, or another for his benefit"]
["such number only, as in the judgment of the united states,"]
["for deciding in all cases, what captures on land or water"]
["authority of such court, or to appear or defend their claim"]
["number to preside, provided that no person be allowed"]
["of a state, or any of them, at his or their request shall"]
["delegates, by virtue of the power and authority to us"]
["On the part and behalf of the State of North Carolina."]
["to time, until the 15th of November, 1777; on which day, ‘‘Articles"]
["in the Year of our Lord One Thousand Seven Hundred"]
["reserved to each state, to recall its delegates, or any of"]
["prince or state, in pursuance of any treaties already pro-"]
["of goods or commodities whatsoever—of establishing rules"]
["congress be drawn out by lot, and the persons whose"]
["in question, according to the best of his judgment without"]
["and equip as many of such extra number as they judge"]
["states in congress assembled, by the consent of nine"]
["Plantations."]
["JNO WALTON, 24th JULY 1778,"]
[]
["Unfortunately, the environmental impact of the infrastructure facilities destruction in the war is not a singular occurrence. Numerous Russian attacks along the Black Sea coastline have led to the devastation of sewage treatment plants and port infrastructures, resulting in unchecked pollution entering the sea. The monitoring group CEOBS has documented several instances of such pollution in the Dnipro-Buh estuary near Mykolaiv. Russian attacks have targeted key industrial sites on the estuary’s left bank, including the Mykolaiv Alumina Plant, where storage tanks for fuel, caustic soda, and recyclable materials were damaged. Additionally, grain terminals and a sunflower oil terminal were hit, leading to significant pollution of the estuary waters and the surrounding marine environment "]
[]
[]
["The Black Sea is an extraordinary body of water, distinct from other seas and oceans. Geographically, it is a semi-enclosed sea, completely encircled by land, with limited connection to the World Ocean through a system of straits. It receives fresh water from multiple rivers, resulting in the Black Sea’s salinity being almost half that of ocean waters. Another unique feature of the Black Sea is its status as the world’s largest meromictic basin, meaning its upper water layer does not mix with the lower, oxygen-depleted layer rich in hydrogen sulphide, which accounts for over 80% of the sea’s total volume. Consequently, its rich biodiversity is confined to the oxygen-rich upper layer."]
["The destruction of the Kakhovka HPP resulted in the release of vast volumes of fresh water contaminated with fertilisers, fuel, lubricants, and sewage into the Black Sea. Following the hydroelectric power plant explosion, this polluted river water reached the Danube’s mouth, affecting over 7,300 km2 of the sea area. Scientists have noted a rapid decrease in water salinity in the Gulf of Odesa. In some coastal zones, exceedingly high nitrogen levels were recorded, indicative of sewage pollution. This significant drop in salinity has caused the demise of various marine life, including mussel colonies, fry, and fish eggs, potentially disrupting the entire coastal ecosystem. The influx of polluted fresh water has also triggered extensive algae blooms, further impacting the sea’s health."]
["Military activities harm the nature reserve fund, leading to sea pollution from sunken equipment and damaged coastal infrastructure, and adversely affect the coastal ecosystems."]
["How Russia pollutes Ukrainian marine environment"]
[]
["The catastrophe at the Kakhovka hydroelectric power plant on June 6, 2023, resulting from the Russian detonation of the dam, significantly impacted nature conservation efforts. The flooding affected several nature reserves, including the Lower Dnipro National Nature Park, established to protect the natural floodplain complexes of the Dnipro Delta. This event posed a serious threat to the survival of various species and ecosystems."]
[]
[]
["The Black Sea and its coastlines hold cherished memories for millions. For thousands of years, this region has been a nexus of trade routes between Europe and Asia, rendering it significant from both biological and geographical perspectives. It is a unique sea basin, characterised by distinct climatic conditions, natural factors, and a rich biodiversity."]
["Together with a marine biologist and a specialist from the climate department at NGO Ecoaction, Sofiia Sadohurska, we dive into details about the uniqueness of the Black Sea, why its biodiversity needs to be protected, and how the war affects its ecosystem. We will also discover if there is any hope for the sea’s restoration and how to overcome the consequences of war."]
["The Black Sea before the war VS now"]
["The destruction of the Kakhovka HPP resulted in the release of vast volumes of fresh water contaminated with fertilisers, fuel, lubricants, and sewage into the Black Sea. Following the hydroelectric power plant explosion, this polluted river water reached the Danube’s mouth, affecting over 7,300 km2 of the sea area. Scientists have noted a rapid decrease in water salinity in the Gulf of Odesa. In some coastal zones, exceedingly high nitrogen levels were recorded, indicative of sewage pollution. This significant drop in salinity has caused the demise of various marine life, including mussel colonies, fry, and fish eggs, potentially disrupting the entire coastal ecosystem. The influx of polluted fresh water has also triggered extensive algae blooms, further impacting the sea’s health."]
["Together with a marine biologist and a specialist from the climate department at NGO Ecoaction, Sofiia Sadohurska, we dive into details about the uniqueness of the Black Sea, why its biodiversity needs to be protected, and how the war affects its ecosystem. We will also discover if there is any hope for the sea’s restoration and how to overcome the consequences of war."]
[]
["The Black Sea before the war VS now"]
[]
["tions of secrecy."]
["in Congress assembled did on the 15th day of November"]
["Justice excepted, shall be entitled to all privileges and"]
["by the united states in congress assembled with any king,"]
["that shall be incurred for the common defence or general"]
["names as congress shall direct, shall in the presence of"]
["be not infringed or violated—establishing and regulating"]
["same, in which case they shall raise, officer, cloath, arm"]
["mander-in-chief of the army or navy, unless nine states"]
["On the part and in behalf of the State of Rhode Island and Providence"]
["On the part and behalf of the State of Delaware."]
["1778; New Jersey on the 26th of November following; Delaware on"]
["1231.5 ARTICLE IV. The better to secure and perpetuate mutual"]
["property of the united states, or either of them."]
["lished by the united states in congress assembled, unless"]
["of the several states within the time agreed upon by the"]
["All controversies concerning the private right of soil"]
["The united states in congress assembled shall have au-"]
["be furnished with a transcript of the said Journal, except"]
["and in behalf of our respective constituents, fully and"]
[947]
["On the 26th of June, 1778, Congress agreed upon the form of a"]
["NECTICUT, NEW YORK, NEW JERSEY, PENNSYLVANIA, DELA-"]
["in their stead, for the remainder of the Year."]
["posed by congress to the courts of France and Spain."]
["in the sixth article—of sending and receiving"]
["manner before prescribed, shall be final and conclusive;"]
["forces, and directing their operations."]
["states, and to appropriate and apply the same for defray-"]
["perpetual; nor shall any alteration at any time hereafter"]
["ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATIONø1231.16¿"]
["entered into between these Colonies’’; which committee was appointed"]
["circular letter be addressed to the States whose delegates were not"]
["Owner is an inhabitant, provided also that no imposition,"]
["grant any title of nobility."]
[940]
["that shall be incurred for the common defence or general"]
["and lodged among the acts of congress for the security"]
["alloy and value of coin struck by their own authority,"]
["of them, shall be authorized to execute, in the recess"]
["of the united states assembled is requisite."]
["On the part and behalf of the State of Massachusetts Bay."]
["H ENRY LAURENS,"]
["the 2d of March, 1781, Congress assembled under the new form of"]
["a firm league of friendship with each other, for their com-"]
["In determining questions in the united states, in Con-"]
["is so imminent as not to admit of a delay, till the united"]
["trial of piracies and felonies committed on the high seas"]
["claimed under different grants of two or more states,"]
["ing the public expences—to borrow money, or emit bills"]
["them with; provided that no power be delegated to the"]
["singular the matters and things therein contained: And"]
["[1231]"]
["and in that event they were to become conclusive. On the 17th of Novem-"]
["Providence Plantations, Connecticut, New York, New Jer-"]
["In determining questions in the united states, in Con-"]
["the defence of such state, or its trade; nor shall any body"]
["exercised in the manner following. Whenever the legisla-"]
["the controversy, so always as a major part of the judges"]
[944]
["The united states in congress assembled shall never"]
["gress, before the assembling of the united states, in pursu-"]
["R OGER SHERMAN,"]
["R. R. Livingston, Mr. Dickinson, Mr. McKean, Mr. Stone, Mr. Nelson,"]
["1 Adopted by the Continental Congress on November 15, 1777, while meeting"]
["people of each state shall have free ingress and regress"]
["on congress, except for treason, felony, or breach of the"]
["for the common defence, all officers of or under the rank"]
["congress shall name three persons out of each of the"]
["of jurisdiction, shall on the petition of either party to"]
["appointed, and within the time agreed on by the united"]
["VerDate 03-FEB-2003 09:48 Mar 04, 2003 Jkt 082300 PO 00000 Frm 00954 Fmt 0869 Sfmt 0869 D:\\DOCS\\82300.TXT SSC2 PsN: SSC2"]
["F RAS LEWIS,"]
["J NO HARVIE ,"]
["pendence of America agree to certain articles of Confed-"]
["and independence, and every Power, Jurisdiction and"]
[939]
["1231.9 ARTICLE VIII. All charges of war, and all other expences"]
["prohibiting the exportation or importation of any species"]
["VerDate 03-FEB-2003 09:48 Mar 04, 2003 Jkt 082300 PO 00000 Frm 00951 Fmt 0869 Sfmt 0869 D:\\DOCS\\82300.TXT SSC2 PsN: SSC2"]
["be necessary for managing the general affairs of the"]
["of land or sea forces to be raised, nor appoint a com-"]
["authorize us to ratify the said articles of confederation"]
["J OSEPH REED , JULY 22, 1778."]
["tions of secrecy."]
["WARE, MARYLAND, VIRGINIA, NORTH CAROLINA, SOUTH"]
["shall upon demand of the Governor or executive power,"]
["interfere with any stipulations in treaties, entered into"]
["levied by the authority and direction of the legislatures"]
["that number not less than seven, nor more than nine"]
["forces, and directing their operations."]
["such extra number cannot be safely spared out of the"]
["given for that purpose, do by these presents, in the name"]
["S AMUEL HOLTEN."]
["RICHARD HENRY LEE,"]
["North Carolina ratified on the 21st and Georgia on the 24th of July,"]
["1231.4 ARTICLE III. The said states hereby severally enter into"]
["tected in their persons from arrests and imprisonments,"]
["declared, and under such regulations as shall be estab-"]
["vided that no treaty of commerce shall be made whereby"]
["the united states."]
["sums of Money to be raised for the service of the united"]
["of a state, or any of them, at his or their request shall"]
[946]
["VerDate 03-FEB-2003 09:48 Mar 04, 2003 Jkt 082300 PO 00000 Frm 00956 Fmt 0869 Sfmt 0869 D:\\DOCS\\82300.TXT SSC2 PsN: SSC2"]
["sylvania, Virginia, and South Carolina. Congress then directed that a"]
["BAY, RHODEISLAND AND PROVIDENCE PLANTATIONS, CON-"]
["them, at any time within the year, and to send others"]
["VerDate 03-FEB-2003 09:48 Mar 04, 2003 Jkt 082300 PO 00000 Frm 00949 Fmt 0869 Sfmt 0869 D:\\DOCS\\82300.TXT SSC2 PsN: SSC2"]
["mining on peace and war, except in the cases mentioned"]
["to be administered by one of the judges of the supreme"]
["government and regulation of the said land and naval"]
["cers, raise the men and cloath, arm and equip them in"]
["perpetual; nor shall any alteration at any time hereafter"]
["A UGUST 8, 1778."]
["be appointed to prepare and digest the form of a confederation to be"]
["the 5th of May, 1779; Maryland on the 1st of March, 1781; and on"]
["imported into any state, to any other state of which the"]
["the united states in congress assembled, or any of them,"]
["nation of Indians to invade such state, and the danger"]
["be directed to appoint by joint consent, commissioners"]
["All controversies concerning the private right of soil"]
["VerDate 03-FEB-2003 09:48 Mar 04, 2003 Jkt 082300 PO 00000 Frm 00953 Fmt 0869 Sfmt 0869 D:\\DOCS\\82300.TXT SSC2 PsN: SSC2"]
["of the united states assembled is requisite."]
["A UGUST 8, 1778."]
[935]
["present, or being present, conceived they were not authorized to sign"]
["ø1231¿"]
["ing of the states, and while they act as members of the"]
["is so imminent as not to admit of a delay, till the united"]
["other cause whatever, which authority shall always be"]
["of the parties concerned: provided that every commis-"]
["The united states in congress assembled shall also have"]
["be for a longer duration than the space of six Months,"]
["and debts contracted by, or under the authority of con-"]
["J OSEPH REED , JULY 22, 1778."]
["namely: Mr. Bartlett, Mr. S. Adams, Mr. Hopkins, Mr. Sherman, Mr."]
["Newhampshire, Massachusetts-bay, Rhodeisland and"]
["courts and magistrates of every other state."]
["necessary by the united states in congress assembled, for"]
["of the several states within the time agreed upon by the"]
["mining the matter in question: but if they cannot agree,"]
["united states, and exacting such postage on the papers"]
["cloathed, armed and equipped, shall march to the place"]
["considered as a charge against the united states, for pay-"]
["J AS DUANE,"]
["[1231]"]
["to time, until the 15th of November, 1777; on which day, ‘‘Articles"]
["immunities of free citizens in the several states, and the"]
["shall be capable of being a delegate for more than three"]
["1231.8 ARTICLE VII. When land-forces are raised by any state"]
["tive or executive authority or lawful agent of any state"]
["names shall be so drawn or any five of them, shall be"]
["and the officers and men so cloathed, armed and equipped"]
["of vessels of war, to be built or purchased, or the number"]
["1231.16 IN WITNESS whereof we have hereunto set our hands"]
["W ILLIAM CLINGAN,"]
["On the 26th of June, 1778, Congress agreed upon the form of a"]
["NECTICUT, NEW YORK, NEW JERSEY, PENNSYLVANIA, DELA-"]
["VerDate 03-FEB-2003 09:48 Mar 04, 2003 Jkt 082300 PO 00000 Frm 00948 Fmt 0869 Sfmt 0869 D:\\DOCS\\82300.TXT SSC2 PsN: SSC2"]
["receives any salary, fees or emolument of any kind."]
["eigners, as their own people are subjected to, or from"]
["and if any of the parties shall refuse to submit to the"]
["government and regulation of the said land and naval"]
["assent to the same; nor shall a question on any other"]
["and shall publish the Journal of their proceedings month-"]
["J NO WITHERSPOON, N ATHL SCUDDER, NOV . 26,"]
["On the part and behalf of the State of Virginia."]
["which was printed for the use of the members under the strictest injunc-"]
["ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATIONø1231.4¿"]
["Justice, and be found in any of the united states, he"]
["No state shall lay any imposts of duties, which may"]
["embassadors—entering into treaties and alliances, pro-"]
["until the number shall be reduced to thirteen; and from"]
["in any term of three years; to ascertain the necessary"]
["state, unless the legislature of such state shall judge that"]
["VerDate 03-FEB-2003 09:48 Mar 04, 2003 Jkt 082300 PO 00000 Frm 00955 Fmt 0869 Sfmt 0869 D:\\DOCS\\82300.TXT SSC2 PsN: SSC2"]
["J AMES LOVELL ,"]
["the ratification, informing them how many and what States had ratified"]
["ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATIONø1231¿"]
["of these states, paupers, vagabonds and fugitives from"]
["tected in their persons from arrests and imprisonments,"]
["and the subjects thereof, against which war has been so"]
["and reprisal in times of peace—appointing courts for the"]
["no state shall be deprived of territory for the benefit of"]
["legislature of each state shall appoint the regimental offi-"]
["when it is desired by any delegate; and the delegates"]
["JOSIAH BARTLETT, J OHN WENTWORTH, JUNR."]
["JOHN HANSON, MARCH 1, 1781, DANIEL CARROL DO"]
["1778; New Jersey on the 26th of November following; Delaware on"]
["TWEEN THE STATES OF NEWHAMPSHIRE, MASSACHUSETTS-"]
["federation or alliance whatever between them, without"]
["every state shall always keep up a well regulated and"]
["shall have the sole and exclusive right and power of deter-"]
["the united states."]
["the service of the united states—making rules for the"]
["of confederation, the voice of nine states in the congress"]
["lably observed by every state, and the union shall be"]
["W ILLIAM ELLERY,"]
["ment; and on the 11th of June, 1776, it was ‘‘Resolved, That a committee"]
["from Maryland."]
["not extend so far as to prevent the removal of property"]
["prince or state, in pursuance of any treaties already pro-"]
["the appointment."]
["ance of the parties by their lawful agents, who shall then"]
["tion between different states."]
["than its quota, and that any other state should raise"]
["considered as a charge against the united states, for pay-"]
["JOSIAH BARTLETT, J OHN WENTWORTH, JUNR."]
["the next day, June 12, and consisted of a member from each Colony,"]
["circular letter be addressed to the States whose delegates were not"]
["states to the records, acts and judicial proceedings of the"]
["Each state shall maintain its own delegates in a meet-"]
["VerDate 03-FEB-2003 09:48 Mar 04, 2003 Jkt 082300 PO 00000 Frm 00949 Fmt 0869 Sfmt 0869 D:\\DOCS\\82300.TXT SSC2 PsN: SSC2"]
["be divided or appropriated—of granting letters of marque"]
["of the parties concerned: provided that every commis-"]
["can be safely spared. And the officers and men so"]
["within the united states, so that no period of adjournment"]
["lably observed by every state, and the union shall be"]
["W ILLIAM CLINGAN,"]
["United States, and if approved by them, they were advised to authorize"]
["eration and perpetual Union between the states of"]
["two, nor by more than seven Members; and no person"]
["by any state, except such number only, as shall be deemed"]
["levied by the authority and direction of the legislatures"]
["ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATIONø1231.10¿"]
["post-offices from one state to another, throughout all the"]
["states, nor appropriate money, nor agree upon the number"]
["considered as a charge against the united states, for pay-"]
["J ONA BAYARD SMITH ,"]
[935]
["State, to subscribe articles of confederation and perpetual union of the"]
["Justice excepted, shall be entitled to all privileges and"]
["committee of the states."]
["states in congress assembled shall determine otherwise."]
["exercised in the manner following. Whenever the legisla-"]
["judge sufficient, or being present shall refuse to strike,"]
["a soldier like manner, at the expence of the united states;"]
["be for a longer duration than the space of six Months,"]
["and that the union shall be perpetual."]
["ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATION ø1231.16¿"]
["ture."]
[938]
["years in any term of six years; nor shall any person,"]
["lished by the united states in congress assembled, unless"]
["strained from imposing such imposts and duties on for-"]
["manner before prescribed, shall be final and conclusive;"]
["to serve in the office of president more than one year"]
["mander-in-chief of the army or navy, unless nine states"]
["mitted to them. And that the articles thereof shall be"]
["On the part and in behalf of the State of New Jersey."]
["On the part and behalf of the State of South Carolina."]
["UNDERSIGNED DELEGATES OF THE STATES AFFIXED TO"]
["ferent states in this union, the free inhabitants of each"]
["specifying accurately the purposes for which the same"]
["the appointment."]
["shall alternately strike out one, the petitioners beginning,"]
["VerDate 03-FEB-2003 09:48 Mar 04, 2003 Jkt 082300 PO 00000 Frm 00952 Fmt 0869 Sfmt 0869 D:\\DOCS\\82300.TXT SSC2 PsN: SSC2"]
["which requisitions shall be binding, and thereupon the"]
["joining in the measures of the united states, shall be"]
["On the part and behalf of the State of New Hampshire."]
["R ICHARD HUTSON,"]
["government."]
["each other, against all force offered to, or attacks made"]
["Owner is an inhabitant, provided also that no imposition,"]
["assembled, and then only against the kingdom or state"]
["The taxes for paying that proportion shall be laid and"]
["in question, according to the best of his judgment without"]
["moneys so borrowed or emitted—to build and equip a"]
["VerDate 03-FEB-2003 09:48 Mar 04, 2003 Jkt 082300 PO 00000 Frm 00953 Fmt 0869 Sfmt 0869 D:\\DOCS\\82300.TXT SSC2 PsN: SSC2"]
["determinations of the united states in congress assembled,"]
["Plantations."]
["The catastrophe at the Kakhovka hydroelectric power plant on June 6, 2023, resulting from the Russian detonation of the dam, significantly impacted nature conservation efforts. The flooding affected several nature reserves, including the Lower Dnipro National Nature Park, established to protect the natural floodplain complexes of the Dnipro Delta. This event posed a serious threat to the survival of various species and ecosystems."]
[]
["Certain territories, like the Kinburn Spit or Dzharylhach Island in the Black Sea, face direct hostilities or have Russian troops present. The building of fortifications and trenches, along with the movement of military equipment and frequent explosions, are damaging vegetation and soil. Fires, ignited both by combat and other factors, add to the devastation. Occupation exacerbates the issue, with the occupiers mining lands and destroying firefighting equipment. The Kinburn Spit alone witnessed 131 fires in the first year of the full-scale invasion, marking 2022 as the year with the largest fires in recent decades. These fires devastated over 5,000 hectares, impacting steppe and coastal ecosystems and the nesting sites of around 100 bird species.Certain territories, like the Kinburn Spit or Dzharylhach Island in the Black Sea, face direct hostilities or have Russian troops present. The building of fortifications and trenches, along with the movement of military equipment and frequent explosions, are damaging vegetation and soil. Fires, ignited both by combat and other factors, add to the devastation. Occupation exacerbates the issue, with the occupiers mining lands and destroying firefighting equipment. The Kinburn Spit alone witnessed 131 fires in the first year of the full-scale invasion, marking 2022 as the year with the largest fires in recent decades. These fires devastated over 5,000 hectares, impacting steppe and coastal ecosystems and the nesting sites of around 100 bird species."]
[]
["With the onset of the full-scale Russian war against Ukraine, the impact on the seas has intensified. Protected areas along the Black and Azov Seas are suffering from both occupation and hostilities. All of Ukraine’s marine nature reserves, along with seven coastal national nature parks and one biosphere reserve, are currently under occupation. These areas, encompassing a diverse range of habitats like seagrass meadows, underwater seaweed forests, dunes, and lagoons, were established to safeguard the unique marine and coastal ecosystems of the Black and Azov Seas."]
["The Black Sea is an extraordinary body of water, distinct from other seas and oceans. Geographically, it is a semi-enclosed sea, completely encircled by land, with limited connection to the World Ocean through a system of straits. It receives fresh water from multiple rivers, resulting in the Black Sea’s salinity being almost half that of ocean waters. Another unique feature of the Black Sea is its status as the world’s largest meromictic basin, meaning its upper water layer does not mix with the lower, oxygen-depleted layer rich in hydrogen sulphide, which accounts for over 80% of the sea’s total volume. Consequently, its rich biodiversity is confined to the oxygen-rich upper layer."]
["Protected areas have also suffered damage or destruction due to natural resource depletion and quarry construction. For instance, the Bakal Spit in northern Crimea, a regional landscape park, experienced illegal sand mining by the occupiers for various construction projects on the peninsula. Furthermore, large-scale infrastructure projects pose additional risks. The infamous Kerch Bridge, built in 2018, could have altered ecosystems and hydrogeological conditions in the Kerch Strait and the entire Azov Sea. The construction of this bridge virtually destroyed the natural habitats on Tuzla Island in the Kerch Strait and disrupted the migration routes of marine animals."]
[]
[]
["In 1996, the six coastal states of the Black Sea signed the Strategic Action Plan for the Environmental Protection and Rehabilitation of the Black Sea. This plan was necessitated by the alarming destruction of the Black Sea’s unique natural complexes due to human impact. Today, the urgency to preserve the Black Sea is greater than ever as it faces the repercussions of the Russian invasion. How is the war affecting the Black Sea, and what measures can be taken to mitigate the consequences for both nature and humanity?"]
["Protected areas have also suffered damage or destruction due to natural resource depletion and quarry construction. For instance, the Bakal Spit in northern Crimea, a regional landscape park, experienced illegal sand mining by the occupiers for various construction projects on the peninsula. Furthermore, large-scale infrastructure projects pose additional risks. The infamous Kerch Bridge, built in 2018, could have altered ecosystems and hydrogeological conditions in the Kerch Strait and the entire Azov Sea. The construction of this bridge virtually destroyed the natural habitats on Tuzla Island in the Kerch Strait and disrupted the migration routes of marine animals."]
[]
["However, its semi-enclosed nature and the large volume of oxygen-depleted waters render the Black Sea particularly susceptible to human activity and climate change."]
["Scientists estimate that oil slicks have covered tens of thousands of square kilometres of Ukraine’s marine protected areas. This oil layer impedes oxygen penetration into the water, inflicting immense damage on marine life and often leading to mass fatalities. Oil and lubricants are particularly toxic to aquatic life, especially the tiny organisms in plankton and neuston (organisms living near the water’s surface). Oil residues can linger on the sea surface for extended periods, drifting with currents, washing ashore, or sinking to the seabed, posing long-term ecological challenges."]
["Protected areas have also suffered damage or destruction due to natural resource depletion and quarry construction. For instance, the Bakal Spit in northern Crimea, a regional landscape park, experienced illegal sand mining by the occupiers for various construction projects on the peninsula. Furthermore, large-scale infrastructure projects pose additional risks. The infamous Kerch Bridge, built in 2018, could have altered ecosystems and hydrogeological conditions in the Kerch Strait and the entire Azov Sea. The construction of this bridge virtually destroyed the natural habitats on Tuzla Island in the Kerch Strait and disrupted the migration routes of marine animals."]
["Additional pollution in the sea comes from submerged military equipment, ships, and ammunition, releasing chemical compounds, rocket fuel residues, and heavy metals into the water. Sunken ships and aircraft are also significant sources of oil pollution. Due to the presence of Russian mines, scientists’ access to the Black Sea is restricted, but satellite imagery provides vital data on oil and other pollutants."]
["However, its semi-enclosed nature and the large volume of oxygen-depleted waters render the Black Sea particularly susceptible to human activity and climate change."]
[]
["Despite challenges, since the 1990s, there has been hope for the revival of marine life in the Black Sea. Scientists have observed signs of ecosystem restoration in its northern part, particularly due to a reduction in biogenic substances flowing from rivers, which in turn has lessened the concentration of organic compounds in the Black Sea’s shelf area. However, the Russian invasion commenced in 2014 poses a significant threat to the Black Sea’s condition. The impact of Russian occupation and warfare is multifaceted and complex, disrupting not only regional security but also altering sea transportation routes and water management and hindering decades of scientific research by Ukrainian scientists. It has emerged as a new ecological challenge."]
[]
["Despite challenges, since the 1990s, there has been hope for the revival of marine life in the Black Sea. Scientists have observed signs of ecosystem restoration in its northern part, particularly due to a reduction in biogenic substances flowing from rivers, which in turn has lessened the concentration of organic compounds in the Black Sea’s shelf area. However, the Russian invasion commenced in 2014 poses a significant threat to the Black Sea’s condition. The impact of Russian occupation and warfare is multifaceted and complex, disrupting not only regional security but also altering sea transportation routes and water management and hindering decades of scientific research by Ukrainian scientists. It has emerged as a new ecological challenge."]
["ommendation to each of the several legislatures ‘‘to invest its delegates"]
["mutual and general welfare, binding themselves to assist"]
["ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATION ø1231.7¿"]
["war, nor letters of marque or reprisal, except it be after"]
["member of congress shall be appointed a judge of any"]
["tried, ‘‘well and truly to hear and determine the matter"]
["year to the respective states an account of the sums of"]
["point, except for adjourning from day to day be deter-"]
["we do further solemnly plight and engage the faith of"]
["NICHOLAS VAN DYKE,"]
["T HO. M’KEAN, FEB . 12, 1779."]
["On the 26th of June, 1778, Congress agreed upon the form of a"]
["lowing, viz."]
["of Congress, and the members of congress shall be pro-"]
["in congress assembled, shall be deemed requisite to garri-"]
["a hearing, notice thereof shall be given by order of con-"]
["and if either party shall neglect to attend at the day"]
["regimental officers—appointing all the officers of the"]
["state on any question shall be entered on the Journal,"]
["questions which by this confederation are submitted to"]
["J NO HARVIE ,"]
["the Continental Congress, and before it was finally agreed upon, meas-"]
["mutual and general welfare, binding themselves to assist"]
["duties, impositions and restrictions as the inhabitants"]
["or receive any embassy from, or enter into any conference,"]
["or in such manner as such state shall direct, and all"]
["that number not less than seven, nor more than nine"]
["scribed for deciding disputes respecting territorial jurisdic-"]
["consideration of circumstances judge proper that any state"]
[945]
["the third year of the independence of America."]
["T HOS. HEYWARD , JUNR."]
["Rhode Island and Providence Plantations, Connecticut, New York, Penn-"]
["to and from any other state, and shall enjoy therein all"]
["the united states, for which he, or another for his benefit"]
["which shall be supplied by the several states, in propor-"]
["shall be legal, and in what manner prizes taken by land"]
["naval forces, and commissioning all officers whatever in"]
["to serve in the office of president more than one year"]
["The Congress of the united states shall have power"]
["S AMUEL ADAMS,"]
["D ANIEL ROBERDEAU,"]
["the Continental Congress, and before it was finally agreed upon, meas-"]
["and Seventy seven, and in the Second Year of the Inde-"]
["Justice, and be found in any of the united states, he"]
["posed by congress to the courts of France and Spain."]
[941]
["VerDate 03-FEB-2003 09:48 Mar 04, 2003 Jkt 082300 PO 00000 Frm 00951 Fmt 0869 Sfmt 0869 D:\\DOCS\\82300.TXT SSC2 PsN: SSC2"]
["the legislative right of any state within its own limits"]
["and equipped in the same manner as the quota of such"]
["and debts contracted by, or under the authority of con-"]
["R OGER SHERMAN,"]
["E DWD . LANGWORTHY ."]
["TO ALL TO WHOM THESE PRESENTS SHALL COME, WE THE"]
["ferent states in this union, the free inhabitants of each"]
["in congress assembled, shall be deemed requisite to garri-"]
["of war may be fitted out for that occasion, and kept so"]
["prohibiting the exportation or importation of any species"]
["claimed under different grants of two or more states,"]
["legislature of each state shall appoint the regimental offi-"]
["tions of the united states in congress assembled, on all"]
["ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATIONø1231.16¿"]
["J NO WITHERSPOON, N ATHL SCUDDER, NOV . 26,"]
["the 10th day of March next.’’ This letter was signed by the President"]
["sey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, North"]
["two, nor by more than seven Members; and no person"]
["shall provide and constantly have ready for use, in public"]
["vided that no treaty of commerce shall be made whereby"]
["favour, affection or hope of reward’’: provided also that"]
["thority to appoint a committee, to sit in the recess of"]
["of vessels of war, to be built or purchased, or the number"]
["authorize us to ratify the said articles of confederation"]
["WILLIAM DUER,"]
["accompany the Articles of Confederation, which concluded with a rec-"]
["1231.1ACT OF CONFEDERATION OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA"]
[939]
["federation or alliance whatever between them, without"]
["war, nor letters of marque or reprisal, except it be after"]
["congress shall name three persons out of each of the"]
["said grants or either of them being at the same time"]
["a greater number of men than the quota thereof, such"]
["of the united states assembled is requisite."]
["singular the matters and things therein contained: And"]
["W ILLIAM HENRY DRAYTON,"]
["the 9th of July, 1778, having been examined and the blanks filled,"]
["mon defence, the security of their Liberties, and their"]
["be impeached or questioned in any Court, or place out"]
["war, nor letters of marque or reprisal, except it be after"]
["congress stating the matter in question and praying for"]
["or superior court of the state, where the cause shall be"]
["of weights and measures throughout the united states—"]
["or military operations as in their judgment require se-"]
["singular the matters and things therein contained: And"]
["T HOMAS ADAMS ,"]
["and in that event they were to become conclusive. On the 17th of Novem-"]
["the Articles of Confederation, and desiring them, with all convenient"]
["be annually appointed in such manner as the legislature"]
["or trust under the united states, or any of them, accept"]
[941]
["until the number shall be reduced to thirteen; and from"]
["land forces, in the service of the united states, excepting"]
["engage in a war, nor grant letters of marque and reprisal"]
["1231.14ARTICLE XIII. Every state shall abide by the determina-"]
["S AMUEL HUNTINGTON,"]
["R ICHARD HUTSON,"]
["1 Adopted by the Continental Congress on November 15, 1777, while meeting"]
["people of each state shall have free ingress and regress"]
["state; nor shall any person holding any office of profit"]
["sembled, shall be defrayed out of a common treasury,"]
["a hearing, notice thereof shall be given by order of con-"]
["and if either party shall neglect to attend at the day"]
["But if the united states in congress assembled shall, on"]
["VerDate 03-FEB-2003 09:48 Mar 04, 2003 Jkt 082300 PO 00000 Frm 00954 Fmt 0869 Sfmt 0869 D:\\DOCS\\82300.TXT SSC2 PsN: SSC2"]
["J AMES LOVELL ,"]
["F RANCIS LIGHTFOOT LEE ."]
["While the Declaration of Independence was under consideration in"]
["right, which is not by this confederation expressly dele-"]
["or other high misdemeanor in any state, shall flee from"]
["No state shall engage in any war without the consent"]
["VerDate 03-FEB-2003 09:48 Mar 04, 2003 Jkt 082300 PO 00000 Frm 00950 Fmt 0869 Sfmt 0869 D:\\DOCS\\82300.TXT SSC2 PsN: SSC2"]
["nounce sentence, or judgment, which shall in like manner"]
["congress, to be denominated ‘‘A Committee of the States,’’"]
["states in congress assembled."]
["authorize us to ratify the said articles of confederation"]
["On the part and behalf of the State of Connecticut."]
["tions of secrecy."]
["Whereas the Delegates of the United States of America"]
["of the state from which he fled, be delivered up and re-"]
["of each state shall direct, to meet in Congress on the"]
["ing to such mode as the united states in congress assem-"]
["eigners, as their own people are subjected to, or from"]
["regulating the trade and managing all affairs with the"]
["on the credit of the united states, transmitting every half"]
["1231.13ARTICLE XII. All bills of credit emitted, monies borrowed"]
["On the part and in behalf of the State of Rhode Island and Providence"]
["On the part and in behalf of the State of New Jersey."]
["North Carolina ratified on the 21st and Georgia on the 24th of July,"]
["Providence Plantations, Connecticut, New York, New Jer-"]
["during the time of their going to and from, and attendance"]
["No state shall engage in any war without the consent"]
["now subsisting or that hereafter may arise between two"]
["in question, according to the best of his judgment without"]
["claimed under different grants of two or more states,"]
["shall march to the place appointed, and within the time"]
["such parts as are above excepted, to lay before the legisla-"]
[946]
["ber, 1777, the Congress agreed upon the form of a circular letter to"]
["United States, and to attend Congress for that purpose on or before"]
["United States of America.’’"]
["No state shall be represented in Congress by less than"]
["any state grant commissions to any ships or vessels of"]
["embassadors—entering into treaties and alliances, pro-"]
["the congress of the united states, be finally determined"]
["The united states in congress assembled shall have au-"]
["admitted into, and entitled to all the advantages of this"]
["to in a congress of the united states, and be afterward"]
["F RAS LEWIS,"]
["articles and the ratification to be engrossed on parchment; which, on"]
["ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATION 1"]
["Freedom of speech and debate in Congress shall not"]
["No two or more states shall enter into any treaty, con-"]
["in controversy with another shall present a petition to"]
["mining the matter in question: but if they cannot agree,"]
["or by that of the respective states—fixing the standard"]
["ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATIONø1231.11¿"]
["of confederation, the voice of nine states in the congress"]
["and that the union shall be perpetual."]
["H ENRY LAURENS,"]
["the ratification, informing them how many and what States had ratified"]
["a firm league of friendship with each other, for their com-"]
["state; nor shall any person holding any office of profit"]
["any state grant commissions to any ships or vessels of"]
["shall alternately strike out one, the petitioners beginning,"]
["to be administered by one of the judges of the supreme"]
["The united states in congress assembled shall never"]
["ly, except such parts thereof relating to treaties, alliances"]
["singular the matters and things therein contained: And"]
["JNO MATHEWS,"]
["their delegates to ratify the same in the Congress of the United States;"]
["immunities of free citizens in the several states, and the"]
["the general interest of the united states, delegates shall"]
["No state shall lay any imposts of duties, which may"]
["VerDate 03-FEB-2003 09:48 Mar 04, 2003 Jkt 082300 PO 00000 Frm 00950 Fmt 0869 Sfmt 0869 D:\\DOCS\\82300.TXT SSC2 PsN: SSC2"]
["who shall hear the cause shall agree in the determination:"]
["expences of the said office—appointing all officers of the"]
["assent to the same; nor shall a question on any other"]
["the public faith are hereby solemnly pledged."]
["R OGER SHERMAN,"]
["HISTORICAL BACKGROUND"]
["1 Adopted by the Continental Congress on November 15, 1777, while meeting"]
["If any Person guilty of, or charged with treason, felony"]
["agreement, alliance or treaty with any King, prince or"]
["united states in congress assembled."]
["congress stating the matter in question and praying for"]
["or cause, the court shall nevertheless proceed to pro-"]
["agreed on by the united states in congress assembled:"]
["crecy; and the yeas and nays of the delegates of each"]
["sylvania the ninth Day of July in the Year of our Lord"]
["J NO HARVIE ,"]
["1776, the committee reported a draft of the Articles of Confederation,"]
["and independence, and every Power, Jurisdiction and"]
["be annually appointed in such manner as the legislature"]
["er quantity of arms, ammunition and camp equipage."]
["strained from imposing such imposts and duties on for-"]
["or cause, the court shall nevertheless proceed to pro-"]
["ing the public expences—to borrow money, or emit bills"]
["mined, unless by the votes of a majority of the united"]
["sylvania the ninth Day of July in the Year of our Lord"]
["On the part and behalf of the State of Pennsylvania."]
["which was printed for the use of the members under the strictest injunc-"]
["Newhampshire, Massachusetts-bay, Rhodeisland and"]
["shall upon demand of the Governor or executive power,"]
["er quantity of arms, ammunition and camp equipage."]
["ings and improvements thereon shall be estimated accord-"]
["nally appeals in all cases of captures, provided that no"]
["ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATION ø1231.10¿"]
["and the officers and men so cloathed, armed and equipped"]
["same, unless such admission be agreed to by nine states."]
["JOHN HANCOCK,"]
["JNO WALTON, 24th JULY 1778,"]
["ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATIONø1231¿"]
["1231.2ARTICLE I. The Stile of this confederacy shall be ‘‘The"]
["tected in their persons from arrests and imprisonments,"]
["states in congress assembled can be consulted: nor shall"]
["the last resort on appeal in all disputes and differences"]
["of jurisdiction, shall on the petition of either party to"]
["tion to the number of white inhabitants in such state;"]
["joining in the measures of the united states, shall be"]
["mitted to them. And that the articles thereof shall be"]
["VerDate 03-FEB-2003 09:48 Mar 04, 2003 Jkt 082300 PO 00000 Frm 00956 Fmt 0869 Sfmt 0869 D:\\DOCS\\82300.TXT SSC2 PsN: SSC2"]
["ratification of the Articles of Confederation, and directed a copy of the"]
["BAY, RHODEISLAND AND PROVIDENCE PLANTATIONS, CON-"]
["gress assembled, each state shall have one vote."]
["every state shall always keep up a well regulated and"]
["states in congress assembled shall determine otherwise."]
["the congress shall proceed to nominate three persons out"]
[943]
["emit bills, nor borrow money on the credit of the united"]
["1231.14ARTICLE XIII. Every state shall abide by the determina-"]
["J AS DUANE,"]
["be appointed to prepare and digest the form of a confederation to be"]
["VerDate 03-FEB-2003 09:48 Mar 04, 2003 Jkt 082300 PO 00000 Frm 00945 Fmt 0869 Sfmt 0869 D:\\DOCS\\82300.TXT SSC2 PsN: SSC2"]
["imported into any state, to any other state of which the"]
["agreement, alliance or treaty with any King, prince or"]
["1231.9 ARTICLE VIII. All charges of war, and all other expences"]
["united states, and from the list of such persons each party"]
["The united states in congress assembled shall also have"]
["united states, and exacting such postage on the papers"]
["said committee, for the exercise of which, by the articles"]
["respectively represent in congress, to approve of, and to"]
["On the part and behalf of the State of South Carolina."]
["circular letter be addressed to the States whose delegates were not"]
["government."]
["ing of the states, and while they act as members of the"]
["is to be entered into, and how long it shall continue."]
["and reprisal in times of peace—appointing courts for the"]
["the controversy, so always as a major part of the judges"]
["states, and to appropriate and apply the same for defray-"]
["mander-in-chief of the army or navy, unless nine states"]
["entirely ratify and confirm each and every of the said"]
["On the part and behalf of the State of Delaware."]
["United States, and if approved by them, they were advised to authorize"]
["eration and perpetual Union between the states of"]
["property of the united states, or either of them."]
["by any state, except such number only, as shall be deemed"]
["of the several states within the time agreed upon by the"]
["names shall be so drawn or any five of them, shall be"]
["authority of such court, or to appear or defend their claim"]
["states in congress assembled."]
["or military operations as in their judgment require se-"]
["J OHN COLLINS."]
["J OHN BANISTER,"]
[]
["Scientists estimate that oil slicks have covered tens of thousands of square kilometres of Ukraine’s marine protected areas. This oil layer impedes oxygen penetration into the water, inflicting immense damage on marine life and often leading to mass fatalities. Oil and lubricants are particularly toxic to aquatic life, especially the tiny organisms in plankton and neuston (organisms living near the water’s surface). Oil residues can linger on the sea surface for extended periods, drifting with currents, washing ashore, or sinking to the seabed, posing long-term ecological challenges."]
[]
["Additional pollution in the sea comes from submerged military equipment, ships, and ammunition, releasing chemical compounds, rocket fuel residues, and heavy metals into the water. Sunken ships and aircraft are also significant sources of oil pollution. Due to the presence of Russian mines, scientists’ access to the Black Sea is restricted, but satellite imagery provides vital data on oil and other pollutants."]
["The destruction of the Kakhovka HPP resulted in the release of vast volumes of fresh water contaminated with fertilisers, fuel, lubricants, and sewage into the Black Sea. Following the hydroelectric power plant explosion, this polluted river water reached the Danube’s mouth, affecting over 7,300 km2 of the sea area. Scientists have noted a rapid decrease in water salinity in the Gulf of Odesa. In some coastal zones, exceedingly high nitrogen levels were recorded, indicative of sewage pollution. This significant drop in salinity has caused the demise of various marine life, including mussel colonies, fry, and fish eggs, potentially disrupting the entire coastal ecosystem. The influx of polluted fresh water has also triggered extensive algae blooms, further impacting the sea’s health."]
[]
["In 1996, the six coastal states of the Black Sea signed the Strategic Action Plan for the Environmental Protection and Rehabilitation of the Black Sea. This plan was necessitated by the alarming destruction of the Black Sea’s unique natural complexes due to human impact. Today, the urgency to preserve the Black Sea is greater than ever as it faces the repercussions of the Russian invasion. How is the war affecting the Black Sea, and what measures can be taken to mitigate the consequences for both nature and humanity?"]
["Despite challenges, since the 1990s, there has been hope for the revival of marine life in the Black Sea. Scientists have observed signs of ecosystem restoration in its northern part, particularly due to a reduction in biogenic substances flowing from rivers, which in turn has lessened the concentration of organic compounds in the Black Sea’s shelf area. However, the Russian invasion commenced in 2014 poses a significant threat to the Black Sea’s condition. The impact of Russian occupation and warfare is multifaceted and complex, disrupting not only regional security but also altering sea transportation routes and water management and hindering decades of scientific research by Ukrainian scientists. It has emerged as a new ecological challenge."]
[]
[]
["The Black Sea before the war VS now"]
[]
["The current sea basin formed just 6–8 thousand years ago with the emergence of the Bosphorus strait, allowing the saline waters of the Mediterranean to mix with the existing freshwater basin. The Black Sea’s biodiversity comprises ancient species and those introduced from the Mediterranean. The combination of these exceptional conditions and the sea’s isolation have fostered a unique biodiversity, including endemic species found nowhere else in the world."]
[]
["However, its semi-enclosed nature and the large volume of oxygen-depleted waters render the Black Sea particularly susceptible to human activity and climate change."]
[]
["Despite challenges, since the 1990s, there has been hope for the revival of marine life in the Black Sea. Scientists have observed signs of ecosystem restoration in its northern part, particularly due to a reduction in biogenic substances flowing from rivers, which in turn has lessened the concentration of organic compounds in the Black Sea’s shelf area. However, the Russian invasion commenced in 2014 poses a significant threat to the Black Sea’s condition. The impact of Russian occupation and warfare is multifaceted and complex, disrupting not only regional security but also altering sea transportation routes and water management and hindering decades of scientific research by Ukrainian scientists. It has emerged as a new ecological challenge."]
[]
["Military activities harm the nature reserve fund, leading to sea pollution from sunken equipment and damaged coastal infrastructure, and adversely affect the coastal ecosystems."]
["Impact of the war on seas and coastal Areas"]
[]
["Since the Russian-Ukrainian war erupted in 2014, numerous protected areas have fallen under Russian occupation. Many suffer from inadequate protection and altered statuses, while others are directly impacted by the actions of the occupiers. A notable example is the militarisation of Crimea, including military exercises in or near protected zones. The Russians have conducted extensive military drills near Cape Chauda on the Kerch Peninsula, adversely affecting the steppe, coastal, and marine ecosystems of the Opuk Nature Reserve. In areas of intense militarisation and training, a significant amount of ammunition has been used, particularly at sea, causing harm to living organisms and contaminating soil, air, and water."]
[]
["Protected areas have also suffered damage or destruction due to natural resource depletion and quarry construction. For instance, the Bakal Spit in northern Crimea, a regional landscape park, experienced illegal sand mining by the occupiers for various construction projects on the peninsula. Furthermore, large-scale infrastructure projects pose additional risks. The infamous Kerch Bridge, built in 2018, could have altered ecosystems and hydrogeological conditions in the Kerch Strait and the entire Azov Sea. The construction of this bridge virtually destroyed the natural habitats on Tuzla Island in the Kerch Strait and disrupted the migration routes of marine animals."]
["With the onset of the full-scale Russian war against Ukraine, the impact on the seas has intensified. Protected areas along the Black and Azov Seas are suffering from both occupation and hostilities. All of Ukraine’s marine nature reserves, along with seven coastal national nature parks and one biosphere reserve, are currently under occupation. These areas, encompassing a diverse range of habitats like seagrass meadows, underwater seaweed forests, dunes, and lagoons, were established to safeguard the unique marine and coastal ecosystems of the Black and Azov Seas."]
["Certain territories, like the Kinburn Spit or Dzharylhach Island in the Black Sea, face direct hostilities or have Russian troops present. The building of fortifications and trenches, along with the movement of military equipment and frequent explosions, are damaging vegetation and soil. Fires, ignited both by combat and other factors, add to the devastation. Occupation exacerbates the issue, with the occupiers mining lands and destroying firefighting equipment. The Kinburn Spit alone witnessed 131 fires in the first year of the full-scale invasion, marking 2022 as the year with the largest fires in recent decades. These fires devastated over 5,000 hectares, impacting steppe and coastal ecosystems and the nesting sites of around 100 bird species.Certain territories, like the Kinburn Spit or Dzharylhach Island in the Black Sea, face direct hostilities or have Russian troops present. The building of fortifications and trenches, along with the movement of military equipment and frequent explosions, are damaging vegetation and soil. Fires, ignited both by combat and other factors, add to the devastation. Occupation exacerbates the issue, with the occupiers mining lands and destroying firefighting equipment. The Kinburn Spit alone witnessed 131 fires in the first year of the full-scale invasion, marking 2022 as the year with the largest fires in recent decades. These fires devastated over 5,000 hectares, impacting steppe and coastal ecosystems and the nesting sites of around 100 bird species."]
[]
["The catastrophe at the Kakhovka hydroelectric power plant on June 6, 2023, resulting from the Russian detonation of the dam, significantly impacted nature conservation efforts. The flooding affected several nature reserves, including the Lower Dnipro National Nature Park, established to protect the natural floodplain complexes of the Dnipro Delta. This event posed a serious threat to the survival of various species and ecosystems."]
["How Russia pollutes Ukrainian marine environment"]
[]
["The destruction of the Kakhovka HPP resulted in the release of vast volumes of fresh water contaminated with fertilisers, fuel, lubricants, and sewage into the Black Sea. Following the hydroelectric power plant explosion, this polluted river water reached the Danube’s mouth, affecting over 7,300 km2 of the sea area. Scientists have noted a rapid decrease in water salinity in the Gulf of Odesa. In some coastal zones, exceedingly high nitrogen levels were recorded, indicative of sewage pollution. This significant drop in salinity has caused the demise of various marine life, including mussel colonies, fry, and fish eggs, potentially disrupting the entire coastal ecosystem. The influx of polluted fresh water has also triggered extensive algae blooms, further impacting the sea’s health."]
[]
["Unfortunately, the environmental impact of the infrastructure facilities destruction in the war is not a singular occurrence. Numerous Russian attacks along the Black Sea coastline have led to the devastation of sewage treatment plants and port infrastructures, resulting in unchecked pollution entering the sea. The monitoring group CEOBS has documented several instances of such pollution in the Dnipro-Buh estuary near Mykolaiv. Russian attacks have targeted key industrial sites on the estuary’s left bank, including the Mykolaiv Alumina Plant, where storage tanks for fuel, caustic soda, and recyclable materials were damaged. Additionally, grain terminals and a sunflower oil terminal were hit, leading to significant pollution of the estuary waters and the surrounding marine environment "]
[]
["Additional pollution in the sea comes from submerged military equipment, ships, and ammunition, releasing chemical compounds, rocket fuel residues, and heavy metals into the water. Sunken ships and aircraft are also significant sources of oil pollution. Due to the presence of Russian mines, scientists’ access to the Black Sea is restricted, but satellite imagery provides vital data on oil and other pollutants."]
[]
["Scientists estimate that oil slicks have covered tens of thousands of square kilometres of Ukraine’s marine protected areas. This oil layer impedes oxygen penetration into the water, inflicting immense damage on marine life and often leading to mass fatalities. Oil and lubricants are particularly toxic to aquatic life, especially the tiny organisms in plankton and neuston (organisms living near the water’s surface). Oil residues can linger on the sea surface for extended periods, drifting with currents, washing ashore, or sinking to the seabed, posing long-term ecological challenges."]
[]
["In 1996, the six coastal states of the Black Sea signed the Strategic Action Plan for the Environmental Protection and Rehabilitation of the Black Sea. This plan was necessitated by the alarming destruction of the Black Sea’s unique natural complexes due to human impact. Today, the urgency to preserve the Black Sea is greater than ever as it faces the repercussions of the Russian invasion. How is the war affecting the Black Sea, and what measures can be taken to mitigate the consequences for both nature and humanity?"]
[]
["Together with a marine biologist and a specialist from the climate department at NGO Ecoaction, Sofiia Sadohurska, we dive into details about the uniqueness of the Black Sea, why its biodiversity needs to be protected, and how the war affects its ecosystem. We will also discover if there is any hope for the sea’s restoration and how to overcome the consequences of war."]
["The Black Sea before the war VS now"]
[]
["The Black Sea and its coastlines hold cherished memories for millions. For thousands of years, this region has been a nexus of trade routes between Europe and Asia, rendering it significant from both biological and geographical perspectives. It is a unique sea basin, characterised by distinct climatic conditions, natural factors, and a rich biodiversity."]
[]
["The Black Sea is an extraordinary body of water, distinct from other seas and oceans. Geographically, it is a semi-enclosed sea, completely encircled by land, with limited connection to the World Ocean through a system of straits. It receives fresh water from multiple rivers, resulting in the Black Sea’s salinity being almost half that of ocean waters. Another unique feature of the Black Sea is its status as the world’s largest meromictic basin, meaning its upper water layer does not mix with the lower, oxygen-depleted layer rich in hydrogen sulphide, which accounts for over 80% of the sea’s total volume. Consequently, its rich biodiversity is confined to the oxygen-rich upper layer."]
[]
["The current sea basin formed just 6–8 thousand years ago with the emergence of the Bosphorus strait, allowing the saline waters of the Mediterranean to mix with the existing freshwater basin. The Black Sea’s biodiversity comprises ancient species and those introduced from the Mediterranean. The combination of these exceptional conditions and the sea’s isolation have fostered a unique biodiversity, including endemic species found nowhere else in the world."]
[]
["However, its semi-enclosed nature and the large volume of oxygen-depleted waters render the Black Sea particularly susceptible to human activity and climate change."]
[]
["Despite challenges, since the 1990s, there has been hope for the revival of marine life in the Black Sea. Scientists have observed signs of ecosystem restoration in its northern part, particularly due to a reduction in biogenic substances flowing from rivers, which in turn has lessened the concentration of organic compounds in the Black Sea’s shelf area. However, the Russian invasion commenced in 2014 poses a significant threat to the Black Sea’s condition. The impact of Russian occupation and warfare is multifaceted and complex, disrupting not only regional security but also altering sea transportation routes and water management and hindering decades of scientific research by Ukrainian scientists. It has emerged as a new ecological challenge."]
[]
["Military activities harm the nature reserve fund, leading to sea pollution from sunken equipment and damaged coastal infrastructure, and adversely affect the coastal ecosystems."]
["Impact of the war on seas and coastal Areas"]
[]
["Since the Russian-Ukrainian war erupted in 2014, numerous protected areas have fallen under Russian occupation. Many suffer from inadequate protection and altered statuses, while others are directly impacted by the actions of the occupiers. A notable example is the militarisation of Crimea, including military exercises in or near protected zones. The Russians have conducted extensive military drills near Cape Chauda on the Kerch Peninsula, adversely affecting the steppe, coastal, and marine ecosystems of the Opuk Nature Reserve. In areas of intense militarisation and training, a significant amount of ammunition has been used, particularly at sea, causing harm to living organisms and contaminating soil, air, and water."]
[]
["Protected areas have also suffered damage or destruction due to natural resource depletion and quarry construction. For instance, the Bakal Spit in northern Crimea, a regional landscape park, experienced illegal sand mining by the occupiers for various construction projects on the peninsula. Furthermore, large-scale infrastructure projects pose additional risks. The infamous Kerch Bridge, built in 2018, could have altered ecosystems and hydrogeological conditions in the Kerch Strait and the entire Azov Sea. The construction of this bridge virtually destroyed the natural habitats on Tuzla Island in the Kerch Strait and disrupted the migration routes of marine animals."]
["With the onset of the full-scale Russian war against Ukraine, the impact on the seas has intensified. Protected areas along the Black and Azov Seas are suffering from both occupation and hostilities. All of Ukraine’s marine nature reserves, along with seven coastal national nature parks and one biosphere reserve, are currently under occupation. These areas, encompassing a diverse range of habitats like seagrass meadows, underwater seaweed forests, dunes, and lagoons, were established to safeguard the unique marine and coastal ecosystems of the Black and Azov Seas."]
["Certain territories, like the Kinburn Spit or Dzharylhach Island in the Black Sea, face direct hostilities or have Russian troops present. The building of fortifications and trenches, along with the movement of military equipment and frequent explosions, are damaging vegetation and soil. Fires, ignited both by combat and other factors, add to the devastation. Occupation exacerbates the issue, with the occupiers mining lands and destroying firefighting equipment. The Kinburn Spit alone witnessed 131 fires in the first year of the full-scale invasion, marking 2022 as the year with the largest fires in recent decades. These fires devastated over 5,000 hectares, impacting steppe and coastal ecosystems and the nesting sites of around 100 bird species.Certain territories, like the Kinburn Spit or Dzharylhach Island in the Black Sea, face direct hostilities or have Russian troops present. The building of fortifications and trenches, along with the movement of military equipment and frequent explosions, are damaging vegetation and soil. Fires, ignited both by combat and other factors, add to the devastation. Occupation exacerbates the issue, with the occupiers mining lands and destroying firefighting equipment. The Kinburn Spit alone witnessed 131 fires in the first year of the full-scale invasion, marking 2022 as the year with the largest fires in recent decades. These fires devastated over 5,000 hectares, impacting steppe and coastal ecosystems and the nesting sites of around 100 bird species."]
[]
["The catastrophe at the Kakhovka hydroelectric power plant on June 6, 2023, resulting from the Russian detonation of the dam, significantly impacted nature conservation efforts. The flooding affected several nature reserves, including the Lower Dnipro National Nature Park, established to protect the natural floodplain complexes of the Dnipro Delta. This event posed a serious threat to the survival of various species and ecosystems."]
["How Russia pollutes Ukrainian marine environment"]
[]
["The destruction of the Kakhovka HPP resulted in the release of vast volumes of fresh water contaminated with fertilisers, fuel, lubricants, and sewage into the Black Sea. Following the hydroelectric power plant explosion, this polluted river water reached the Danube’s mouth, affecting over 7,300 km2 of the sea area. Scientists have noted a rapid decrease in water salinity in the Gulf of Odesa. In some coastal zones, exceedingly high nitrogen levels were recorded, indicative of sewage pollution. This significant drop in salinity has caused the demise of various marine life, including mussel colonies, fry, and fish eggs, potentially disrupting the entire coastal ecosystem. The influx of polluted fresh water has also triggered extensive algae blooms, further impacting the sea’s health."]
[]
["Unfortunately, the environmental impact of the infrastructure facilities destruction in the war is not a singular occurrence. Numerous Russian attacks along the Black Sea coastline have led to the devastation of sewage treatment plants and port infrastructures, resulting in unchecked pollution entering the sea. The monitoring group CEOBS has documented several instances of such pollution in the Dnipro-Buh estuary near Mykolaiv. Russian attacks have targeted key industrial sites on the estuary’s left bank, including the Mykolaiv Alumina Plant, where storage tanks for fuel, caustic soda, and recyclable materials were damaged. Additionally, grain terminals and a sunflower oil terminal were hit, leading to significant pollution of the estuary waters and the surrounding marine environment "]
[]
["Additional pollution in the sea comes from submerged military equipment, ships, and ammunition, releasing chemical compounds, rocket fuel residues, and heavy metals into the water. Sunken ships and aircraft are also significant sources of oil pollution. Due to the presence of Russian mines, scientists’ access to the Black Sea is restricted, but satellite imagery provides vital data on oil and other pollutants."]
[]
["Scientists estimate that oil slicks have covered tens of thousands of square kilometres of Ukraine’s marine protected areas. This oil layer impedes oxygen penetration into the water, inflicting immense damage on marine life and often leading to mass fatalities. Oil and lubricants are particularly toxic to aquatic life, especially the tiny organisms in plankton and neuston (organisms living near the water’s surface). Oil residues can linger on the sea surface for extended periods, drifting with currents, washing ashore, or sinking to the seabed, posing long-term ecological challenges."]
["In 1996, the six coastal states of the Black Sea signed the Strategic Action Plan for the Environmental Protection and Rehabilitation of the Black Sea. This plan was necessitated by the alarming destruction of the Black Sea’s unique natural complexes due to human impact. Today, the urgency to preserve the Black Sea is greater than ever as it faces the repercussions of the Russian invasion. How is the war affecting the Black Sea, and what measures can be taken to mitigate the consequences for both nature and humanity?"]
[]
["Together with a marine biologist and a specialist from the climate department at NGO Ecoaction, Sofiia Sadohurska, we dive into details about the uniqueness of the Black Sea, why its biodiversity needs to be protected, and how the war affects its ecosystem. We will also discover if there is any hope for the sea’s restoration and how to overcome the consequences of war."]
["The Black Sea before the war VS now"]
[]
["The Black Sea and its coastlines hold cherished memories for millions. For thousands of years, this region has been a nexus of trade routes between Europe and Asia, rendering it significant from both biological and geographical perspectives. It is a unique sea basin, characterised by distinct climatic conditions, natural factors, and a rich biodiversity."]
[]
["The Black Sea is an extraordinary body of water, distinct from other seas and oceans. Geographically, it is a semi-enclosed sea, completely encircled by land, with limited connection to the World Ocean through a system of straits. It receives fresh water from multiple rivers, resulting in the Black Sea’s salinity being almost half that of ocean waters. Another unique feature of the Black Sea is its status as the world’s largest meromictic basin, meaning its upper water layer does not mix with the lower, oxygen-depleted layer rich in hydrogen sulphide, which accounts for over 80% of the sea’s total volume. Consequently, its rich biodiversity is confined to the oxygen-rich upper layer."]
[]
["The current sea basin formed just 6–8 thousand years ago with the emergence of the Bosphorus strait, allowing the saline waters of the Mediterranean to mix with the existing freshwater basin. The Black Sea’s biodiversity comprises ancient species and those introduced from the Mediterranean. The combination of these exceptional conditions and the sea’s isolation have fostered a unique biodiversity, including endemic species found nowhere else in the world."]
[]
["However, its semi-enclosed nature and the large volume of oxygen-depleted waters render the Black Sea particularly susceptible to human activity and climate change."]
[]
["Despite challenges, since the 1990s, there has been hope for the revival of marine life in the Black Sea. Scientists have observed signs of ecosystem restoration in its northern part, particularly due to a reduction in biogenic substances flowing from rivers, which in turn has lessened the concentration of organic compounds in the Black Sea’s shelf area. However, the Russian invasion commenced in 2014 poses a significant threat to the Black Sea’s condition. The impact of Russian occupation and warfare is multifaceted and complex, disrupting not only regional security but also altering sea transportation routes and water management and hindering decades of scientific research by Ukrainian scientists. It has emerged as a new ecological challenge."]
[]
["Military activities harm the nature reserve fund, leading to sea pollution from sunken equipment and damaged coastal infrastructure, and adversely affect the coastal ecosystems."]
["Impact of the war on seas and coastal Areas"]
[]
["Since the Russian-Ukrainian war erupted in 2014, numerous protected areas have fallen under Russian occupation. Many suffer from inadequate protection and altered statuses, while others are directly impacted by the actions of the occupiers. A notable example is the militarisation of Crimea, including military exercises in or near protected zones. The Russians have conducted extensive military drills near Cape Chauda on the Kerch Peninsula, adversely affecting the steppe, coastal, and marine ecosystems of the Opuk Nature Reserve. In areas of intense militarisation and training, a significant amount of ammunition has been used, particularly at sea, causing harm to living organisms and contaminating soil, air, and water."]
[]
["Protected areas have also suffered damage or destruction due to natural resource depletion and quarry construction. For instance, the Bakal Spit in northern Crimea, a regional landscape park, experienced illegal sand mining by the occupiers for various construction projects on the peninsula. Furthermore, large-scale infrastructure projects pose additional risks. The infamous Kerch Bridge, built in 2018, could have altered ecosystems and hydrogeological conditions in the Kerch Strait and the entire Azov Sea. The construction of this bridge virtually destroyed the natural habitats on Tuzla Island in the Kerch Strait and disrupted the migration routes of marine animals."]
["With the onset of the full-scale Russian war against Ukraine, the impact on the seas has intensified. Protected areas along the Black and Azov Seas are suffering from both occupation and hostilities. All of Ukraine’s marine nature reserves, along with seven coastal national nature parks and one biosphere reserve, are currently under occupation. These areas, encompassing a diverse range of habitats like seagrass meadows, underwater seaweed forests, dunes, and lagoons, were established to safeguard the unique marine and coastal ecosystems of the Black and Azov Seas."]
["Certain territories, like the Kinburn Spit or Dzharylhach Island in the Black Sea, face direct hostilities or have Russian troops present. The building of fortifications and trenches, along with the movement of military equipment and frequent explosions, are damaging vegetation and soil. Fires, ignited both by combat and other factors, add to the devastation. Occupation exacerbates the issue, with the occupiers mining lands and destroying firefighting equipment. The Kinburn Spit alone witnessed 131 fires in the first year of the full-scale invasion, marking 2022 as the year with the largest fires in recent decades. These fires devastated over 5,000 hectares, impacting steppe and coastal ecosystems and the nesting sites of around 100 bird species.Certain territories, like the Kinburn Spit or Dzharylhach Island in the Black Sea, face direct hostilities or have Russian troops present. The building of fortifications and trenches, along with the movement of military equipment and frequent explosions, are damaging vegetation and soil. Fires, ignited both by combat and other factors, add to the devastation. Occupation exacerbates the issue, with the occupiers mining lands and destroying firefighting equipment. The Kinburn Spit alone witnessed 131 fires in the first year of the full-scale invasion, marking 2022 as the year with the largest fires in recent decades. These fires devastated over 5,000 hectares, impacting steppe and coastal ecosystems and the nesting sites of around 100 bird species."]
[]
["The catastrophe at the Kakhovka hydroelectric power plant on June 6, 2023, resulting from the Russian detonation of the dam, significantly impacted nature conservation efforts. The flooding affected several nature reserves, including the Lower Dnipro National Nature Park, established to protect the natural floodplain complexes of the Dnipro Delta. This event posed a serious threat to the survival of various species and ecosystems."]
["How Russia pollutes Ukrainian marine environment"]
[]
["The destruction of the Kakhovka HPP resulted in the release of vast volumes of fresh water contaminated with fertilisers, fuel, lubricants, and sewage into the Black Sea. Following the hydroelectric power plant explosion, this polluted river water reached the Danube’s mouth, affecting over 7,300 km2 of the sea area. Scientists have noted a rapid decrease in water salinity in the Gulf of Odesa. In some coastal zones, exceedingly high nitrogen levels were recorded, indicative of sewage pollution. This significant drop in salinity has caused the demise of various marine life, including mussel colonies, fry, and fish eggs, potentially disrupting the entire coastal ecosystem. The influx of polluted fresh water has also triggered extensive algae blooms, further impacting the sea’s health."]
[]
["Unfortunately, the environmental impact of the infrastructure facilities destruction in the war is not a singular occurrence. Numerous Russian attacks along the Black Sea coastline have led to the devastation of sewage treatment plants and port infrastructures, resulting in unchecked pollution entering the sea. The monitoring group CEOBS has documented several instances of such pollution in the Dnipro-Buh estuary near Mykolaiv. Russian attacks have targeted key industrial sites on the estuary’s left bank, including the Mykolaiv Alumina Plant, where storage tanks for fuel, caustic soda, and recyclable materials were damaged. Additionally, grain terminals and a sunflower oil terminal were hit, leading to significant pollution of the estuary waters and the surrounding marine environment "]
[]
["Additional pollution in the sea comes from submerged military equipment, ships, and ammunition, releasing chemical compounds, rocket fuel residues, and heavy metals into the water. Sunken ships and aircraft are also significant sources of oil pollution. Due to the presence of Russian mines, scientists’ access to the Black Sea is restricted, but satellite imagery provides vital data on oil and other pollutants."]
[]
["Scientists estimate that oil slicks have covered tens of thousands of square kilometres of Ukraine’s marine protected areas. This oil layer impedes oxygen penetration into the water, inflicting immense damage on marine life and often leading to mass fatalities. Oil and lubricants are particularly toxic to aquatic life, especially the tiny organisms in plankton and neuston (organisms living near the water’s surface). Oil residues can linger on the sea surface for extended periods, drifting with currents, washing ashore, or sinking to the seabed, posing long-term ecological challenges."]
[]
["In 1996, the six coastal states of the Black Sea signed the Strategic Action Plan for the Environmental Protection and Rehabilitation of the Black Sea. This plan was necessitated by the alarming destruction of the Black Sea’s unique natural complexes due to human impact. Today, the urgency to preserve the Black Sea is greater than ever as it faces the repercussions of the Russian invasion. How is the war affecting the Black Sea, and what measures can be taken to mitigate the consequences for both nature and humanity?"]
[]
["Together with a marine biologist and a specialist from the climate department at NGO Ecoaction, Sofiia Sadohurska, we dive into details about the uniqueness of the Black Sea, why its biodiversity needs to be protected, and how the war affects its ecosystem. We will also discover if there is any hope for the sea’s restoration and how to overcome the consequences of war."]
["The Black Sea before the war VS now"]
[]
["The Black Sea and its coastlines hold cherished memories for millions. For thousands of years, this region has been a nexus of trade routes between Europe and Asia, rendering it significant from both biological and geographical perspectives. It is a unique sea basin, characterised by distinct climatic conditions, natural factors, and a rich biodiversity."]
[]
["The Black Sea is an extraordinary body of water, distinct from other seas and oceans. Geographically, it is a semi-enclosed sea, completely encircled by land, with limited connection to the World Ocean through a system of straits. It receives fresh water from multiple rivers, resulting in the Black Sea’s salinity being almost half that of ocean waters. Another unique feature of the Black Sea is its status as the world’s largest meromictic basin, meaning its upper water layer does not mix with the lower, oxygen-depleted layer rich in hydrogen sulphide, which accounts for over 80% of the sea’s total volume. Consequently, its rich biodiversity is confined to the oxygen-rich upper layer."]
[]
["The current sea basin formed just 6–8 thousand years ago with the emergence of the Bosphorus strait, allowing the saline waters of the Mediterranean to mix with the existing freshwater basin. The Black Sea’s biodiversity comprises ancient species and those introduced from the Mediterranean. The combination of these exceptional conditions and the sea’s isolation have fostered a unique biodiversity, including endemic species found nowhere else in the world."]
[]
["However, its semi-enclosed nature and the large volume of oxygen-depleted waters render the Black Sea particularly susceptible to human activity and climate change."]
[]
["Despite challenges, since the 1990s, there has been hope for the revival of marine life in the Black Sea. Scientists have observed signs of ecosystem restoration in its northern part, particularly due to a reduction in biogenic substances flowing from rivers, which in turn has lessened the concentration of organic compounds in the Black Sea’s shelf area. However, the Russian invasion commenced in 2014 poses a significant threat to the Black Sea’s condition. The impact of Russian occupation and warfare is multifaceted and complex, disrupting not only regional security but also altering sea transportation routes and water management and hindering decades of scientific research by Ukrainian scientists. It has emerged as a new ecological challenge."]
[]
["Military activities harm the nature reserve fund, leading to sea pollution from sunken equipment and damaged coastal infrastructure, and adversely affect the coastal ecosystems."]
["Impact of the war on seas and coastal Areas"]
[]
["Since the Russian-Ukrainian war erupted in 2014, numerous protected areas have fallen under Russian occupation. Many suffer from inadequate protection and altered statuses, while others are directly impacted by the actions of the occupiers. A notable example is the militarisation of Crimea, including military exercises in or near protected zones. The Russians have conducted extensive military drills near Cape Chauda on the Kerch Peninsula, adversely affecting the steppe, coastal, and marine ecosystems of the Opuk Nature Reserve. In areas of intense militarisation and training, a significant amount of ammunition has been used, particularly at sea, causing harm to living organisms and contaminating soil, air, and water."]
[]
["Protected areas have also suffered damage or destruction due to natural resource depletion and quarry construction. For instance, the Bakal Spit in northern Crimea, a regional landscape park, experienced illegal sand mining by the occupiers for various construction projects on the peninsula. Furthermore, large-scale infrastructure projects pose additional risks. The infamous Kerch Bridge, built in 2018, could have altered ecosystems and hydrogeological conditions in the Kerch Strait and the entire Azov Sea. The construction of this bridge virtually destroyed the natural habitats on Tuzla Island in the Kerch Strait and disrupted the migration routes of marine animals."]
["With the onset of the full-scale Russian war against Ukraine, the impact on the seas has intensified. Protected areas along the Black and Azov Seas are suffering from both occupation and hostilities. All of Ukraine’s marine nature reserves, along with seven coastal national nature parks and one biosphere reserve, are currently under occupation. These areas, encompassing a diverse range of habitats like seagrass meadows, underwater seaweed forests, dunes, and lagoons, were established to safeguard the unique marine and coastal ecosystems of the Black and Azov Seas."]
["Certain territories, like the Kinburn Spit or Dzharylhach Island in the Black Sea, face direct hostilities or have Russian troops present. The building of fortifications and trenches, along with the movement of military equipment and frequent explosions, are damaging vegetation and soil. Fires, ignited both by combat and other factors, add to the devastation. Occupation exacerbates the issue, with the occupiers mining lands and destroying firefighting equipment. The Kinburn Spit alone witnessed 131 fires in the first year of the full-scale invasion, marking 2022 as the year with the largest fires in recent decades. These fires devastated over 5,000 hectares, impacting steppe and coastal ecosystems and the nesting sites of around 100 bird species.Certain territories, like the Kinburn Spit or Dzharylhach Island in the Black Sea, face direct hostilities or have Russian troops present. The building of fortifications and trenches, along with the movement of military equipment and frequent explosions, are damaging vegetation and soil. Fires, ignited both by combat and other factors, add to the devastation. Occupation exacerbates the issue, with the occupiers mining lands and destroying firefighting equipment. The Kinburn Spit alone witnessed 131 fires in the first year of the full-scale invasion, marking 2022 as the year with the largest fires in recent decades. These fires devastated over 5,000 hectares, impacting steppe and coastal ecosystems and the nesting sites of around 100 bird species."]
[]
["The catastrophe at the Kakhovka hydroelectric power plant on June 6, 2023, resulting from the Russian detonation of the dam, significantly impacted nature conservation efforts. The flooding affected several nature reserves, including the Lower Dnipro National Nature Park, established to protect the natural floodplain complexes of the Dnipro Delta. This event posed a serious threat to the survival of various species and ecosystems."]
["How Russia pollutes Ukrainian marine environment"]
[]
["The destruction of the Kakhovka HPP resulted in the release of vast volumes of fresh water contaminated with fertilisers, fuel, lubricants, and sewage into the Black Sea. Following the hydroelectric power plant explosion, this polluted river water reached the Danube’s mouth, affecting over 7,300 km2 of the sea area. Scientists have noted a rapid decrease in water salinity in the Gulf of Odesa. In some coastal zones, exceedingly high nitrogen levels were recorded, indicative of sewage pollution. This significant drop in salinity has caused the demise of various marine life, including mussel colonies, fry, and fish eggs, potentially disrupting the entire coastal ecosystem. The influx of polluted fresh water has also triggered extensive algae blooms, further impacting the sea’s health."]
[]
["Unfortunately, the environmental impact of the infrastructure facilities destruction in the war is not a singular occurrence. Numerous Russian attacks along the Black Sea coastline have led to the devastation of sewage treatment plants and port infrastructures, resulting in unchecked pollution entering the sea. The monitoring group CEOBS has documented several instances of such pollution in the Dnipro-Buh estuary near Mykolaiv. Russian attacks have targeted key industrial sites on the estuary’s left bank, including the Mykolaiv Alumina Plant, where storage tanks for fuel, caustic soda, and recyclable materials were damaged. Additionally, grain terminals and a sunflower oil terminal were hit, leading to significant pollution of the estuary waters and the surrounding marine environment "]
[]
["Additional pollution in the sea comes from submerged military equipment, ships, and ammunition, releasing chemical compounds, rocket fuel residues, and heavy metals into the water. Sunken ships and aircraft are also significant sources of oil pollution. Due to the presence of Russian mines, scientists’ access to the Black Sea is restricted, but satellite imagery provides vital data on oil and other pollutants."]
[]
["Scientists estimate that oil slicks have covered tens of thousands of square kilometres of Ukraine’s marine protected areas. This oil layer impedes oxygen penetration into the water, inflicting immense damage on marine life and often leading to mass fatalities. Oil and lubricants are particularly toxic to aquatic life, especially the tiny organisms in plankton and neuston (organisms living near the water’s surface). Oil residues can linger on the sea surface for extended periods, drifting with currents, washing ashore, or sinking to the seabed, posing long-term ecological challenges."]
[]
["In 1996, the six coastal states of the Black Sea signed the Strategic Action Plan for the Environmental Protection and Rehabilitation of the Black Sea. This plan was necessitated by the alarming destruction of the Black Sea’s unique natural complexes due to human impact. Today, the urgency to preserve the Black Sea is greater than ever as it faces the repercussions of the Russian invasion. How is the war affecting the Black Sea, and what measures can be taken to mitigate the consequences for both nature and humanity?"]
[]
["Together with a marine biologist and a specialist from the climate department at NGO Ecoaction, Sofiia Sadohurska, we dive into details about the uniqueness of the Black Sea, why its biodiversity needs to be protected, and how the war affects its ecosystem. We will also discover if there is any hope for the sea’s restoration and how to overcome the consequences of war."]
["The Black Sea before the war VS now"]
[]
["The Black Sea and its coastlines hold cherished memories for millions. For thousands of years, this region has been a nexus of trade routes between Europe and Asia, rendering it significant from both biological and geographical perspectives. It is a unique sea basin, characterised by distinct climatic conditions, natural factors, and a rich biodiversity."]
[]
["The Black Sea is an extraordinary body of water, distinct from other seas and oceans. Geographically, it is a semi-enclosed sea, completely encircled by land, with limited connection to the World Ocean through a system of straits. It receives fresh water from multiple rivers, resulting in the Black Sea’s salinity being almost half that of ocean waters. Another unique feature of the Black Sea is its status as the world’s largest meromictic basin, meaning its upper water layer does not mix with the lower, oxygen-depleted layer rich in hydrogen sulphide, which accounts for over 80% of the sea’s total volume. Consequently, its rich biodiversity is confined to the oxygen-rich upper layer."]
[]
["The current sea basin formed just 6–8 thousand years ago with the emergence of the Bosphorus strait, allowing the saline waters of the Mediterranean to mix with the existing freshwater basin. The Black Sea’s biodiversity comprises ancient species and those introduced from the Mediterranean. The combination of these exceptional conditions and the sea’s isolation have fostered a unique biodiversity, including endemic species found nowhere else in the world."]
[]
["However, its semi-enclosed nature and the large volume of oxygen-depleted waters render the Black Sea particularly susceptible to human activity and climate change."]
[]
["Despite challenges, since the 1990s, there has been hope for the revival of marine life in the Black Sea. Scientists have observed signs of ecosystem restoration in its northern part, particularly due to a reduction in biogenic substances flowing from rivers, which in turn has lessened the concentration of organic compounds in the Black Sea’s shelf area. However, the Russian invasion commenced in 2014 poses a significant threat to the Black Sea’s condition. The impact of Russian occupation and warfare is multifaceted and complex, disrupting not only regional security but also altering sea transportation routes and water management and hindering decades of scientific research by Ukrainian scientists. It has emerged as a new ecological challenge."]
[]
["Military activities harm the nature reserve fund, leading to sea pollution from sunken equipment and damaged coastal infrastructure, and adversely affect the coastal ecosystems."]
["Impact of the war on seas and coastal Areas"]
[]
["Since the Russian-Ukrainian war erupted in 2014, numerous protected areas have fallen under Russian occupation. Many suffer from inadequate protection and altered statuses, while others are directly impacted by the actions of the occupiers. A notable example is the militarisation of Crimea, including military exercises in or near protected zones. The Russians have conducted extensive military drills near Cape Chauda on the Kerch Peninsula, adversely affecting the steppe, coastal, and marine ecosystems of the Opuk Nature Reserve. In areas of intense militarisation and training, a significant amount of ammunition has been used, particularly at sea, causing harm to living organisms and contaminating soil, air, and water."]
[]
["Protected areas have also suffered damage or destruction due to natural resource depletion and quarry construction. For instance, the Bakal Spit in northern Crimea, a regional landscape park, experienced illegal sand mining by the occupiers for various construction projects on the peninsula. Furthermore, large-scale infrastructure projects pose additional risks. The infamous Kerch Bridge, built in 2018, could have altered ecosystems and hydrogeological conditions in the Kerch Strait and the entire Azov Sea. The construction of this bridge virtually destroyed the natural habitats on Tuzla Island in the Kerch Strait and disrupted the migration routes of marine animals."]
["With the onset of the full-scale Russian war against Ukraine, the impact on the seas has intensified. Protected areas along the Black and Azov Seas are suffering from both occupation and hostilities. All of Ukraine’s marine nature reserves, along with seven coastal national nature parks and one biosphere reserve, are currently under occupation. These areas, encompassing a diverse range of habitats like seagrass meadows, underwater seaweed forests, dunes, and lagoons, were established to safeguard the unique marine and coastal ecosystems of the Black and Azov Seas."]
["Certain territories, like the Kinburn Spit or Dzharylhach Island in the Black Sea, face direct hostilities or have Russian troops present. The building of fortifications and trenches, along with the movement of military equipment and frequent explosions, are damaging vegetation and soil. Fires, ignited both by combat and other factors, add to the devastation. Occupation exacerbates the issue, with the occupiers mining lands and destroying firefighting equipment. The Kinburn Spit alone witnessed 131 fires in the first year of the full-scale invasion, marking 2022 as the year with the largest fires in recent decades. These fires devastated over 5,000 hectares, impacting steppe and coastal ecosystems and the nesting sites of around 100 bird species.Certain territories, like the Kinburn Spit or Dzharylhach Island in the Black Sea, face direct hostilities or have Russian troops present. The building of fortifications and trenches, along with the movement of military equipment and frequent explosions, are damaging vegetation and soil. Fires, ignited both by combat and other factors, add to the devastation. Occupation exacerbates the issue, with the occupiers mining lands and destroying firefighting equipment. The Kinburn Spit alone witnessed 131 fires in the first year of the full-scale invasion, marking 2022 as the year with the largest fires in recent decades. These fires devastated over 5,000 hectares, impacting steppe and coastal ecosystems and the nesting sites of around 100 bird species."]
[]
["The catastrophe at the Kakhovka hydroelectric power plant on June 6, 2023, resulting from the Russian detonation of the dam, significantly impacted nature conservation efforts. The flooding affected several nature reserves, including the Lower Dnipro National Nature Park, established to protect the natural floodplain complexes of the Dnipro Delta. This event posed a serious threat to the survival of various species and ecosystems."]
["How Russia pollutes Ukrainian marine environment"]
[]
["The destruction of the Kakhovka HPP resulted in the release of vast volumes of fresh water contaminated with fertilisers, fuel, lubricants, and sewage into the Black Sea. Following the hydroelectric power plant explosion, this polluted river water reached the Danube’s mouth, affecting over 7,300 km2 of the sea area. Scientists have noted a rapid decrease in water salinity in the Gulf of Odesa. In some coastal zones, exceedingly high nitrogen levels were recorded, indicative of sewage pollution. This significant drop in salinity has caused the demise of various marine life, including mussel colonies, fry, and fish eggs, potentially disrupting the entire coastal ecosystem. The influx of polluted fresh water has also triggered extensive algae blooms, further impacting the sea’s health."]
[]
["Unfortunately, the environmental impact of the infrastructure facilities destruction in the war is not a singular occurrence. Numerous Russian attacks along the Black Sea coastline have led to the devastation of sewage treatment plants and port infrastructures, resulting in unchecked pollution entering the sea. The monitoring group CEOBS has documented several instances of such pollution in the Dnipro-Buh estuary near Mykolaiv. Russian attacks have targeted key industrial sites on the estuary’s left bank, including the Mykolaiv Alumina Plant, where storage tanks for fuel, caustic soda, and recyclable materials were damaged. Additionally, grain terminals and a sunflower oil terminal were hit, leading to significant pollution of the estuary waters and the surrounding marine environment "]
[]
["Additional pollution in the sea comes from submerged military equipment, ships, and ammunition, releasing chemical compounds, rocket fuel residues, and heavy metals into the water. Sunken ships and aircraft are also significant sources of oil pollution. Due to the presence of Russian mines, scientists’ access to the Black Sea is restricted, but satellite imagery provides vital data on oil and other pollutants."]
[]
["Scientists estimate that oil slicks have covered tens of thousands of square kilometres of Ukraine’s marine protected areas. This oil layer impedes oxygen penetration into the water, inflicting immense damage on marine life and often leading to mass fatalities. Oil and lubricants are particularly toxic to aquatic life, especially the tiny organisms in plankton and neuston (organisms living near the water’s surface). Oil residues can linger on the sea surface for extended periods, drifting with currents, washing ashore, or sinking to the seabed, posing long-term ecological challenges."]
[]
["In 1996, the six coastal states of the Black Sea signed the Strategic Action Plan for the Environmental Protection and Rehabilitation of the Black Sea. This plan was necessitated by the alarming destruction of the Black Sea’s unique natural complexes due to human impact. Today, the urgency to preserve the Black Sea is greater than ever as it faces the repercussions of the Russian invasion. How is the war affecting the Black Sea, and what measures can be taken to mitigate the consequences for both nature and humanity?"]
[]
["Together with a marine biologist and a specialist from the climate department at NGO Ecoaction, Sofiia Sadohurska, we dive into details about the uniqueness of the Black Sea, why its biodiversity needs to be protected, and how the war affects its ecosystem. We will also discover if there is any hope for the sea’s restoration and how to overcome the consequences of war."]
["The Black Sea before the war VS now"]
[]
["The Black Sea and its coastlines hold cherished memories for millions. For thousands of years, this region has been a nexus of trade routes between Europe and Asia, rendering it significant from both biological and geographical perspectives. It is a unique sea basin, characterised by distinct climatic conditions, natural factors, and a rich biodiversity."]
[]
["The Black Sea is an extraordinary body of water, distinct from other seas and oceans. Geographically, it is a semi-enclosed sea, completely encircled by land, with limited connection to the World Ocean through a system of straits. It receives fresh water from multiple rivers, resulting in the Black Sea’s salinity being almost half that of ocean waters. Another unique feature of the Black Sea is its status as the world’s largest meromictic basin, meaning its upper water layer does not mix with the lower, oxygen-depleted layer rich in hydrogen sulphide, which accounts for over 80% of the sea’s total volume. Consequently, its rich biodiversity is confined to the oxygen-rich upper layer."]
[]
["The current sea basin formed just 6–8 thousand years ago with the emergence of the Bosphorus strait, allowing the saline waters of the Mediterranean to mix with the existing freshwater basin. The Black Sea’s biodiversity comprises ancient species and those introduced from the Mediterranean. The combination of these exceptional conditions and the sea’s isolation have fostered a unique biodiversity, including endemic species found nowhere else in the world."]
[]
["However, its semi-enclosed nature and the large volume of oxygen-depleted waters render the Black Sea particularly susceptible to human activity and climate change."]
[]
["Despite challenges, since the 1990s, there has been hope for the revival of marine life in the Black Sea. Scientists have observed signs of ecosystem restoration in its northern part, particularly due to a reduction in biogenic substances flowing from rivers, which in turn has lessened the concentration of organic compounds in the Black Sea’s shelf area. However, the Russian invasion commenced in 2014 poses a significant threat to the Black Sea’s condition. The impact of Russian occupation and warfare is multifaceted and complex, disrupting not only regional security but also altering sea transportation routes and water management and hindering decades of scientific research by Ukrainian scientists. It has emerged as a new ecological challenge."]
[]
["Military activities harm the nature reserve fund, leading to sea pollution from sunken equipment and damaged coastal infrastructure, and adversely affect the coastal ecosystems."]
["Impact of the war on seas and coastal Areas"]
[]
["Since the Russian-Ukrainian war erupted in 2014, numerous protected areas have fallen under Russian occupation. Many suffer from inadequate protection and altered statuses, while others are directly impacted by the actions of the occupiers. A notable example is the militarisation of Crimea, including military exercises in or near protected zones. The Russians have conducted extensive military drills near Cape Chauda on the Kerch Peninsula, adversely affecting the steppe, coastal, and marine ecosystems of the Opuk Nature Reserve. In areas of intense militarisation and training, a significant amount of ammunition has been used, particularly at sea, causing harm to living organisms and contaminating soil, air, and water."]
[]
["Protected areas have also suffered damage or destruction due to natural resource depletion and quarry construction. For instance, the Bakal Spit in northern Crimea, a regional landscape park, experienced illegal sand mining by the occupiers for various construction projects on the peninsula. Furthermore, large-scale infrastructure projects pose additional risks. The infamous Kerch Bridge, built in 2018, could have altered ecosystems and hydrogeological conditions in the Kerch Strait and the entire Azov Sea. The construction of this bridge virtually destroyed the natural habitats on Tuzla Island in the Kerch Strait and disrupted the migration routes of marine animals."]
["With the onset of the full-scale Russian war against Ukraine, the impact on the seas has intensified. Protected areas along the Black and Azov Seas are suffering from both occupation and hostilities. All of Ukraine’s marine nature reserves, along with seven coastal national nature parks and one biosphere reserve, are currently under occupation. These areas, encompassing a diverse range of habitats like seagrass meadows, underwater seaweed forests, dunes, and lagoons, were established to safeguard the unique marine and coastal ecosystems of the Black and Azov Seas."]
["Certain territories, like the Kinburn Spit or Dzharylhach Island in the Black Sea, face direct hostilities or have Russian troops present. The building of fortifications and trenches, along with the movement of military equipment and frequent explosions, are damaging vegetation and soil. Fires, ignited both by combat and other factors, add to the devastation. Occupation exacerbates the issue, with the occupiers mining lands and destroying firefighting equipment. The Kinburn Spit alone witnessed 131 fires in the first year of the full-scale invasion, marking 2022 as the year with the largest fires in recent decades. These fires devastated over 5,000 hectares, impacting steppe and coastal ecosystems and the nesting sites of around 100 bird species.Certain territories, like the Kinburn Spit or Dzharylhach Island in the Black Sea, face direct hostilities or have Russian troops present. The building of fortifications and trenches, along with the movement of military equipment and frequent explosions, are damaging vegetation and soil. Fires, ignited both by combat and other factors, add to the devastation. Occupation exacerbates the issue, with the occupiers mining lands and destroying firefighting equipment. The Kinburn Spit alone witnessed 131 fires in the first year of the full-scale invasion, marking 2022 as the year with the largest fires in recent decades. These fires devastated over 5,000 hectares, impacting steppe and coastal ecosystems and the nesting sites of around 100 bird species."]
[]
["The catastrophe at the Kakhovka hydroelectric power plant on June 6, 2023, resulting from the Russian detonation of the dam, significantly impacted nature conservation efforts. The flooding affected several nature reserves, including the Lower Dnipro National Nature Park, established to protect the natural floodplain complexes of the Dnipro Delta. This event posed a serious threat to the survival of various species and ecosystems."]
["How Russia pollutes Ukrainian marine environment"]
[]
["The destruction of the Kakhovka HPP resulted in the release of vast volumes of fresh water contaminated with fertilisers, fuel, lubricants, and sewage into the Black Sea. Following the hydroelectric power plant explosion, this polluted river water reached the Danube’s mouth, affecting over 7,300 km2 of the sea area. Scientists have noted a rapid decrease in water salinity in the Gulf of Odesa. In some coastal zones, exceedingly high nitrogen levels were recorded, indicative of sewage pollution. This significant drop in salinity has caused the demise of various marine life, including mussel colonies, fry, and fish eggs, potentially disrupting the entire coastal ecosystem. The influx of polluted fresh water has also triggered extensive algae blooms, further impacting the sea’s health."]
[]
["Unfortunately, the environmental impact of the infrastructure facilities destruction in the war is not a singular occurrence. Numerous Russian attacks along the Black Sea coastline have led to the devastation of sewage treatment plants and port infrastructures, resulting in unchecked pollution entering the sea. The monitoring group CEOBS has documented several instances of such pollution in the Dnipro-Buh estuary near Mykolaiv. Russian attacks have targeted key industrial sites on the estuary’s left bank, including the Mykolaiv Alumina Plant, where storage tanks for fuel, caustic soda, and recyclable materials were damaged. Additionally, grain terminals and a sunflower oil terminal were hit, leading to significant pollution of the estuary waters and the surrounding marine environment "]
[]
["Additional pollution in the sea comes from submerged military equipment, ships, and ammunition, releasing chemical compounds, rocket fuel residues, and heavy metals into the water. Sunken ships and aircraft are also significant sources of oil pollution. Due to the presence of Russian mines, scientists’ access to the Black Sea is restricted, but satellite imagery provides vital data on oil and other pollutants."]
[]
["Scientists estimate that oil slicks have covered tens of thousands of square kilometres of Ukraine’s marine protected areas. This oil layer impedes oxygen penetration into the water, inflicting immense damage on marine life and often leading to mass fatalities. Oil and lubricants are particularly toxic to aquatic life, especially the tiny organisms in plankton and neuston (organisms living near the water’s surface). Oil residues can linger on the sea surface for extended periods, drifting with currents, washing ashore, or sinking to the seabed, posing long-term ecological challenges."]
[]
[]
["In 1996, the six coastal states of the Black Sea signed the Strategic Action Plan for the Environmental Protection and Rehabilitation of the Black Sea. This plan was necessitated by the alarming destruction of the Black Sea’s unique natural complexes due to human impact. Today, the urgency to preserve the Black Sea is greater than ever as it faces the repercussions of the Russian invasion. How is the war affecting the Black Sea, and what measures can be taken to mitigate the consequences for both nature and humanity?"]
[]
["Together with a marine biologist and a specialist from the climate department at NGO Ecoaction, Sofiia Sadohurska, we dive into details about the uniqueness of the Black Sea, why its biodiversity needs to be protected, and how the war affects its ecosystem. We will also discover if there is any hope for the sea’s restoration and how to overcome the consequences of war."]
["The Black Sea before the war VS now"]
[]
["The Black Sea and its coastlines hold cherished memories for millions. For thousands of years, this region has been a nexus of trade routes between Europe and Asia, rendering it significant from both biological and geographical perspectives. It is a unique sea basin, characterised by distinct climatic conditions, natural factors, and a rich biodiversity."]
[]
["The Black Sea is an extraordinary body of water, distinct from other seas and oceans. Geographically, it is a semi-enclosed sea, completely encircled by land, with limited connection to the World Ocean through a system of straits. It receives fresh water from multiple rivers, resulting in the Black Sea’s salinity being almost half that of ocean waters. Another unique feature of the Black Sea is its status as the world’s largest meromictic basin, meaning its upper water layer does not mix with the lower, oxygen-depleted layer rich in hydrogen sulphide, which accounts for over 80% of the sea’s total volume. Consequently, its rich biodiversity is confined to the oxygen-rich upper layer."]
[]
["The current sea basin formed just 6–8 thousand years ago with the emergence of the Bosphorus strait, allowing the saline waters of the Mediterranean to mix with the existing freshwater basin. The Black Sea’s biodiversity comprises ancient species and those introduced from the Mediterranean. The combination of these exceptional conditions and the sea’s isolation have fostered a unique biodiversity, including endemic species found nowhere else in the world."]
[]
["However, its semi-enclosed nature and the large volume of oxygen-depleted waters render the Black Sea particularly susceptible to human activity and climate change."]
[]
["Despite challenges, since the 1990s, there has been hope for the revival of marine life in the Black Sea. Scientists have observed signs of ecosystem restoration in its northern part, particularly due to a reduction in biogenic substances flowing from rivers, which in turn has lessened the concentration of organic compounds in the Black Sea’s shelf area. However, the Russian invasion commenced in 2014 poses a significant threat to the Black Sea’s condition. The impact of Russian occupation and warfare is multifaceted and complex, disrupting not only regional security but also altering sea transportation routes and water management and hindering decades of scientific research by Ukrainian scientists. It has emerged as a new ecological challenge."]
[]
["Military activities harm the nature reserve fund, leading to sea pollution from sunken equipment and damaged coastal infrastructure, and adversely affect the coastal ecosystems."]
["Impact of the war on seas and coastal Areas"]
[]
["Since the Russian-Ukrainian war erupted in 2014, numerous protected areas have fallen under Russian occupation. Many suffer from inadequate protection and altered statuses, while others are directly impacted by the actions of the occupiers. A notable example is the militarisation of Crimea, including military exercises in or near protected zones. The Russians have conducted extensive military drills near Cape Chauda on the Kerch Peninsula, adversely affecting the steppe, coastal, and marine ecosystems of the Opuk Nature Reserve. In areas of intense militarisation and training, a significant amount of ammunition has been used, particularly at sea, causing harm to living organisms and contaminating soil, air, and water."]
[]
["Protected areas have also suffered damage or destruction due to natural resource depletion and quarry construction. For instance, the Bakal Spit in northern Crimea, a regional landscape park, experienced illegal sand mining by the occupiers for various construction projects on the peninsula. Furthermore, large-scale infrastructure projects pose additional risks. The infamous Kerch Bridge, built in 2018, could have altered ecosystems and hydrogeological conditions in the Kerch Strait and the entire Azov Sea. The construction of this bridge virtually destroyed the natural habitats on Tuzla Island in the Kerch Strait and disrupted the migration routes of marine animals."]
["With the onset of the full-scale Russian war against Ukraine, the impact on the seas has intensified. Protected areas along the Black and Azov Seas are suffering from both occupation and hostilities. All of Ukraine’s marine nature reserves, along with seven coastal national nature parks and one biosphere reserve, are currently under occupation. These areas, encompassing a diverse range of habitats like seagrass meadows, underwater seaweed forests, dunes, and lagoons, were established to safeguard the unique marine and coastal ecosystems of the Black and Azov Seas."]
["Certain territories, like the Kinburn Spit or Dzharylhach Island in the Black Sea, face direct hostilities or have Russian troops present. The building of fortifications and trenches, along with the movement of military equipment and frequent explosions, are damaging vegetation and soil. Fires, ignited both by combat and other factors, add to the devastation. Occupation exacerbates the issue, with the occupiers mining lands and destroying firefighting equipment. The Kinburn Spit alone witnessed 131 fires in the first year of the full-scale invasion, marking 2022 as the year with the largest fires in recent decades. These fires devastated over 5,000 hectares, impacting steppe and coastal ecosystems and the nesting sites of around 100 bird species.Certain territories, like the Kinburn Spit or Dzharylhach Island in the Black Sea, face direct hostilities or have Russian troops present. The building of fortifications and trenches, along with the movement of military equipment and frequent explosions, are damaging vegetation and soil. Fires, ignited both by combat and other factors, add to the devastation. Occupation exacerbates the issue, with the occupiers mining lands and destroying firefighting equipment. The Kinburn Spit alone witnessed 131 fires in the first year of the full-scale invasion, marking 2022 as the year with the largest fires in recent decades. These fires devastated over 5,000 hectares, impacting steppe and coastal ecosystems and the nesting sites of around 100 bird species."]
[]
["The catastrophe at the Kakhovka hydroelectric power plant on June 6, 2023, resulting from the Russian detonation of the dam, significantly impacted nature conservation efforts. The flooding affected several nature reserves, including the Lower Dnipro National Nature Park, established to protect the natural floodplain complexes of the Dnipro Delta. This event posed a serious threat to the survival of various species and ecosystems."]
["How Russia pollutes Ukrainian marine environment"]
[]
["The destruction of the Kakhovka HPP resulted in the release of vast volumes of fresh water contaminated with fertilisers, fuel, lubricants, and sewage into the Black Sea. Following the hydroelectric power plant explosion, this polluted river water reached the Danube’s mouth, affecting over 7,300 km2 of the sea area. Scientists have noted a rapid decrease in water salinity in the Gulf of Odesa. In some coastal zones, exceedingly high nitrogen levels were recorded, indicative of sewage pollution. This significant drop in salinity has caused the demise of various marine life, including mussel colonies, fry, and fish eggs, potentially disrupting the entire coastal ecosystem. The influx of polluted fresh water has also triggered extensive algae blooms, further impacting the sea’s health."]
[]
["Unfortunately, the environmental impact of the infrastructure facilities destruction in the war is not a singular occurrence. Numerous Russian attacks along the Black Sea coastline have led to the devastation of sewage treatment plants and port infrastructures, resulting in unchecked pollution entering the sea. The monitoring group CEOBS has documented several instances of such pollution in the Dnipro-Buh estuary near Mykolaiv. Russian attacks have targeted key industrial sites on the estuary’s left bank, including the Mykolaiv Alumina Plant, where storage tanks for fuel, caustic soda, and recyclable materials were damaged. Additionally, grain terminals and a sunflower oil terminal were hit, leading to significant pollution of the estuary waters and the surrounding marine environment "]
[]
["Additional pollution in the sea comes from submerged military equipment, ships, and ammunition, releasing chemical compounds, rocket fuel residues, and heavy metals into the water. Sunken ships and aircraft are also significant sources of oil pollution. Due to the presence of Russian mines, scientists’ access to the Black Sea is restricted, but satellite imagery provides vital data on oil and other pollutants."]
[]
["Scientists estimate that oil slicks have covered tens of thousands of square kilometres of Ukraine’s marine protected areas. This oil layer impedes oxygen penetration into the water, inflicting immense damage on marine life and often leading to mass fatalities. Oil and lubricants are particularly toxic to aquatic life, especially the tiny organisms in plankton and neuston (organisms living near the water’s surface). Oil residues can linger on the sea surface for extended periods, drifting with currents, washing ashore, or sinking to the seabed, posing long-term ecological challenges."]
[]
["In 1996, the six coastal states of the Black Sea signed the Strategic Action Plan for the Environmental Protection and Rehabilitation of the Black Sea. This plan was necessitated by the alarming destruction of the Black Sea’s unique natural complexes due to human impact. Today, the urgency to preserve the Black Sea is greater than ever as it faces the repercussions of the Russian invasion. How is the war affecting the Black Sea, and what measures can be taken to mitigate the consequences for both nature and humanity?"]
[]
["Together with a marine biologist and a specialist from the climate department at NGO Ecoaction, Sofiia Sadohurska, we dive into details about the uniqueness of the Black Sea, why its biodiversity needs to be protected, and how the war affects its ecosystem. We will also discover if there is any hope for the sea’s restoration and how to overcome the consequences of war."]
["The Black Sea before the war VS now"]
[]
["The Black Sea and its coastlines hold cherished memories for millions. For thousands of years, this region has been a nexus of trade routes between Europe and Asia, rendering it significant from both biological and geographical perspectives. It is a unique sea basin, characterised by distinct climatic conditions, natural factors, and a rich biodiversity."]
[]
["The Black Sea is an extraordinary body of water, distinct from other seas and oceans. Geographically, it is a semi-enclosed sea, completely encircled by land, with limited connection to the World Ocean through a system of straits. It receives fresh water from multiple rivers, resulting in the Black Sea’s salinity being almost half that of ocean waters. Another unique feature of the Black Sea is its status as the world’s largest meromictic basin, meaning its upper water layer does not mix with the lower, oxygen-depleted layer rich in hydrogen sulphide, which accounts for over 80% of the sea’s total volume. Consequently, its rich biodiversity is confined to the oxygen-rich upper layer."]
[]
["The current sea basin formed just 6–8 thousand years ago with the emergence of the Bosphorus strait, allowing the saline waters of the Mediterranean to mix with the existing freshwater basin. The Black Sea’s biodiversity comprises ancient species and those introduced from the Mediterranean. The combination of these exceptional conditions and the sea’s isolation have fostered a unique biodiversity, including endemic species found nowhere else in the world."]
[]
["However, its semi-enclosed nature and the large volume of oxygen-depleted waters render the Black Sea particularly susceptible to human activity and climate change."]
[]
["Despite challenges, since the 1990s, there has been hope for the revival of marine life in the Black Sea. Scientists have observed signs of ecosystem restoration in its northern part, particularly due to a reduction in biogenic substances flowing from rivers, which in turn has lessened the concentration of organic compounds in the Black Sea’s shelf area. However, the Russian invasion commenced in 2014 poses a significant threat to the Black Sea’s condition. The impact of Russian occupation and warfare is multifaceted and complex, disrupting not only regional security but also altering sea transportation routes and water management and hindering decades of scientific research by Ukrainian scientists. It has emerged as a new ecological challenge."]
[]
["Military activities harm the nature reserve fund, leading to sea pollution from sunken equipment and damaged coastal infrastructure, and adversely affect the coastal ecosystems."]
["Impact of the war on seas and coastal Areas"]
[]
["Since the Russian-Ukrainian war erupted in 2014, numerous protected areas have fallen under Russian occupation. Many suffer from inadequate protection and altered statuses, while others are directly impacted by the actions of the occupiers. A notable example is the militarisation of Crimea, including military exercises in or near protected zones. The Russians have conducted extensive military drills near Cape Chauda on the Kerch Peninsula, adversely affecting the steppe, coastal, and marine ecosystems of the Opuk Nature Reserve. In areas of intense militarisation and training, a significant amount of ammunition has been used, particularly at sea, causing harm to living organisms and contaminating soil, air, and water."]
[]
["Protected areas have also suffered damage or destruction due to natural resource depletion and quarry construction. For instance, the Bakal Spit in northern Crimea, a regional landscape park, experienced illegal sand mining by the occupiers for various construction projects on the peninsula. Furthermore, large-scale infrastructure projects pose additional risks. The infamous Kerch Bridge, built in 2018, could have altered ecosystems and hydrogeological conditions in the Kerch Strait and the entire Azov Sea. The construction of this bridge virtually destroyed the natural habitats on Tuzla Island in the Kerch Strait and disrupted the migration routes of marine animals."]
["With the onset of the full-scale Russian war against Ukraine, the impact on the seas has intensified. Protected areas along the Black and Azov Seas are suffering from both occupation and hostilities. All of Ukraine’s marine nature reserves, along with seven coastal national nature parks and one biosphere reserve, are currently under occupation. These areas, encompassing a diverse range of habitats like seagrass meadows, underwater seaweed forests, dunes, and lagoons, were established to safeguard the unique marine and coastal ecosystems of the Black and Azov Seas."]
["Certain territories, like the Kinburn Spit or Dzharylhach Island in the Black Sea, face direct hostilities or have Russian troops present. The building of fortifications and trenches, along with the movement of military equipment and frequent explosions, are damaging vegetation and soil. Fires, ignited both by combat and other factors, add to the devastation. Occupation exacerbates the issue, with the occupiers mining lands and destroying firefighting equipment. The Kinburn Spit alone witnessed 131 fires in the first year of the full-scale invasion, marking 2022 as the year with the largest fires in recent decades. These fires devastated over 5,000 hectares, impacting steppe and coastal ecosystems and the nesting sites of around 100 bird species.Certain territories, like the Kinburn Spit or Dzharylhach Island in the Black Sea, face direct hostilities or have Russian troops present. The building of fortifications and trenches, along with the movement of military equipment and frequent explosions, are damaging vegetation and soil. Fires, ignited both by combat and other factors, add to the devastation. Occupation exacerbates the issue, with the occupiers mining lands and destroying firefighting equipment. The Kinburn Spit alone witnessed 131 fires in the first year of the full-scale invasion, marking 2022 as the year with the largest fires in recent decades. These fires devastated over 5,000 hectares, impacting steppe and coastal ecosystems and the nesting sites of around 100 bird species."]
[]
["The catastrophe at the Kakhovka hydroelectric power plant on June 6, 2023, resulting from the Russian detonation of the dam, significantly impacted nature conservation efforts. The flooding affected several nature reserves, including the Lower Dnipro National Nature Park, established to protect the natural floodplain complexes of the Dnipro Delta. This event posed a serious threat to the survival of various species and ecosystems."]
["How Russia pollutes Ukrainian marine environment"]
[]
["The destruction of the Kakhovka HPP resulted in the release of vast volumes of fresh water contaminated with fertilisers, fuel, lubricants, and sewage into the Black Sea. Following the hydroelectric power plant explosion, this polluted river water reached the Danube’s mouth, affecting over 7,300 km2 of the sea area. Scientists have noted a rapid decrease in water salinity in the Gulf of Odesa. In some coastal zones, exceedingly high nitrogen levels were recorded, indicative of sewage pollution. This significant drop in salinity has caused the demise of various marine life, including mussel colonies, fry, and fish eggs, potentially disrupting the entire coastal ecosystem. The influx of polluted fresh water has also triggered extensive algae blooms, further impacting the sea’s health."]
[]
["Unfortunately, the environmental impact of the infrastructure facilities destruction in the war is not a singular occurrence. Numerous Russian attacks along the Black Sea coastline have led to the devastation of sewage treatment plants and port infrastructures, resulting in unchecked pollution entering the sea. The monitoring group CEOBS has documented several instances of such pollution in the Dnipro-Buh estuary near Mykolaiv. Russian attacks have targeted key industrial sites on the estuary’s left bank, including the Mykolaiv Alumina Plant, where storage tanks for fuel, caustic soda, and recyclable materials were damaged. Additionally, grain terminals and a sunflower oil terminal were hit, leading to significant pollution of the estuary waters and the surrounding marine environment "]
[]
["Additional pollution in the sea comes from submerged military equipment, ships, and ammunition, releasing chemical compounds, rocket fuel residues, and heavy metals into the water. Sunken ships and aircraft are also significant sources of oil pollution. Due to the presence of Russian mines, scientists’ access to the Black Sea is restricted, but satellite imagery provides vital data on oil and other pollutants."]
[]
["Scientists estimate that oil slicks have covered tens of thousands of square kilometres of Ukraine’s marine protected areas. This oil layer impedes oxygen penetration into the water, inflicting immense damage on marine life and often leading to mass fatalities. Oil and lubricants are particularly toxic to aquatic life, especially the tiny organisms in plankton and neuston (organisms living near the water’s surface). Oil residues can linger on the sea surface for extended periods, drifting with currents, washing ashore, or sinking to the seabed, posing long-term ecological challenges."]
[]
[]
["In 1996, the six coastal states of the Black Sea signed the Strategic Action Plan for the Environmental Protection and Rehabilitation of the Black Sea. This plan was necessitated by the alarming destruction of the Black Sea’s unique natural complexes due to human impact. Today, the urgency to preserve the Black Sea is greater than ever as it faces the repercussions of the Russian invasion. How is the war affecting the Black Sea, and what measures can be taken to mitigate the consequences for both nature and humanity?"]
[]
["Together with a marine biologist and a specialist from the climate department at NGO Ecoaction, Sofiia Sadohurska, we dive into details about the uniqueness of the Black Sea, why its biodiversity needs to be protected, and how the war affects its ecosystem. We will also discover if there is any hope for the sea’s restoration and how to overcome the consequences of war."]
["The Black Sea before the war VS now"]
[]
["The Black Sea and its coastlines hold cherished memories for millions. For thousands of years, this region has been a nexus of trade routes between Europe and Asia, rendering it significant from both biological and geographical perspectives. It is a unique sea basin, characterised by distinct climatic conditions, natural factors, and a rich biodiversity."]
[]
["The Black Sea is an extraordinary body of water, distinct from other seas and oceans. Geographically, it is a semi-enclosed sea, completely encircled by land, with limited connection to the World Ocean through a system of straits. It receives fresh water from multiple rivers, resulting in the Black Sea’s salinity being almost half that of ocean waters. Another unique feature of the Black Sea is its status as the world’s largest meromictic basin, meaning its upper water layer does not mix with the lower, oxygen-depleted layer rich in hydrogen sulphide, which accounts for over 80% of the sea’s total volume. Consequently, its rich biodiversity is confined to the oxygen-rich upper layer."]
[]
["The current sea basin formed just 6–8 thousand years ago with the emergence of the Bosphorus strait, allowing the saline waters of the Mediterranean to mix with the existing freshwater basin. The Black Sea’s biodiversity comprises ancient species and those introduced from the Mediterranean. The combination of these exceptional conditions and the sea’s isolation have fostered a unique biodiversity, including endemic species found nowhere else in the world."]
[]
["However, its semi-enclosed nature and the large volume of oxygen-depleted waters render the Black Sea particularly susceptible to human activity and climate change."]
[]
["Despite challenges, since the 1990s, there has been hope for the revival of marine life in the Black Sea. Scientists have observed signs of ecosystem restoration in its northern part, particularly due to a reduction in biogenic substances flowing from rivers, which in turn has lessened the concentration of organic compounds in the Black Sea’s shelf area. However, the Russian invasion commenced in 2014 poses a significant threat to the Black Sea’s condition. The impact of Russian occupation and warfare is multifaceted and complex, disrupting not only regional security but also altering sea transportation routes and water management and hindering decades of scientific research by Ukrainian scientists. It has emerged as a new ecological challenge."]
[]
["Military activities harm the nature reserve fund, leading to sea pollution from sunken equipment and damaged coastal infrastructure, and adversely affect the coastal ecosystems."]
["Impact of the war on seas and coastal Areas"]
[]
["Since the Russian-Ukrainian war erupted in 2014, numerous protected areas have fallen under Russian occupation. Many suffer from inadequate protection and altered statuses, while others are directly impacted by the actions of the occupiers. A notable example is the militarisation of Crimea, including military exercises in or near protected zones. The Russians have conducted extensive military drills near Cape Chauda on the Kerch Peninsula, adversely affecting the steppe, coastal, and marine ecosystems of the Opuk Nature Reserve. In areas of intense militarisation and training, a significant amount of ammunition has been used, particularly at sea, causing harm to living organisms and contaminating soil, air, and water."]
[]
["Protected areas have also suffered damage or destruction due to natural resource depletion and quarry construction. For instance, the Bakal Spit in northern Crimea, a regional landscape park, experienced illegal sand mining by the occupiers for various construction projects on the peninsula. Furthermore, large-scale infrastructure projects pose additional risks. The infamous Kerch Bridge, built in 2018, could have altered ecosystems and hydrogeological conditions in the Kerch Strait and the entire Azov Sea. The construction of this bridge virtually destroyed the natural habitats on Tuzla Island in the Kerch Strait and disrupted the migration routes of marine animals."]
["With the onset of the full-scale Russian war against Ukraine, the impact on the seas has intensified. Protected areas along the Black and Azov Seas are suffering from both occupation and hostilities. All of Ukraine’s marine nature reserves, along with seven coastal national nature parks and one biosphere reserve, are currently under occupation. These areas, encompassing a diverse range of habitats like seagrass meadows, underwater seaweed forests, dunes, and lagoons, were established to safeguard the unique marine and coastal ecosystems of the Black and Azov Seas."]
["Certain territories, like the Kinburn Spit or Dzharylhach Island in the Black Sea, face direct hostilities or have Russian troops present. The building of fortifications and trenches, along with the movement of military equipment and frequent explosions, are damaging vegetation and soil. Fires, ignited both by combat and other factors, add to the devastation. Occupation exacerbates the issue, with the occupiers mining lands and destroying firefighting equipment. The Kinburn Spit alone witnessed 131 fires in the first year of the full-scale invasion, marking 2022 as the year with the largest fires in recent decades. These fires devastated over 5,000 hectares, impacting steppe and coastal ecosystems and the nesting sites of around 100 bird species.Certain territories, like the Kinburn Spit or Dzharylhach Island in the Black Sea, face direct hostilities or have Russian troops present. The building of fortifications and trenches, along with the movement of military equipment and frequent explosions, are damaging vegetation and soil. Fires, ignited both by combat and other factors, add to the devastation. Occupation exacerbates the issue, with the occupiers mining lands and destroying firefighting equipment. The Kinburn Spit alone witnessed 131 fires in the first year of the full-scale invasion, marking 2022 as the year with the largest fires in recent decades. These fires devastated over 5,000 hectares, impacting steppe and coastal ecosystems and the nesting sites of around 100 bird species."]
[]
["The catastrophe at the Kakhovka hydroelectric power plant on June 6, 2023, resulting from the Russian detonation of the dam, significantly impacted nature conservation efforts. The flooding affected several nature reserves, including the Lower Dnipro National Nature Park, established to protect the natural floodplain complexes of the Dnipro Delta. This event posed a serious threat to the survival of various species and ecosystems."]
["How Russia pollutes Ukrainian marine environment"]
[]
["The destruction of the Kakhovka HPP resulted in the release of vast volumes of fresh water contaminated with fertilisers, fuel, lubricants, and sewage into the Black Sea. Following the hydroelectric power plant explosion, this polluted river water reached the Danube’s mouth, affecting over 7,300 km2 of the sea area. Scientists have noted a rapid decrease in water salinity in the Gulf of Odesa. In some coastal zones, exceedingly high nitrogen levels were recorded, indicative of sewage pollution. This significant drop in salinity has caused the demise of various marine life, including mussel colonies, fry, and fish eggs, potentially disrupting the entire coastal ecosystem. The influx of polluted fresh water has also triggered extensive algae blooms, further impacting the sea’s health."]
[]
["Unfortunately, the environmental impact of the infrastructure facilities destruction in the war is not a singular occurrence. Numerous Russian attacks along the Black Sea coastline have led to the devastation of sewage treatment plants and port infrastructures, resulting in unchecked pollution entering the sea. The monitoring group CEOBS has documented several instances of such pollution in the Dnipro-Buh estuary near Mykolaiv. Russian attacks have targeted key industrial sites on the estuary’s left bank, including the Mykolaiv Alumina Plant, where storage tanks for fuel, caustic soda, and recyclable materials were damaged. Additionally, grain terminals and a sunflower oil terminal were hit, leading to significant pollution of the estuary waters and the surrounding marine environment "]
[]
["Additional pollution in the sea comes from submerged military equipment, ships, and ammunition, releasing chemical compounds, rocket fuel residues, and heavy metals into the water. Sunken ships and aircraft are also significant sources of oil pollution. Due to the presence of Russian mines, scientists’ access to the Black Sea is restricted, but satellite imagery provides vital data on oil and other pollutants."]
[]
["Scientists estimate that oil slicks have covered tens of thousands of square kilometres of Ukraine’s marine protected areas. This oil layer impedes oxygen penetration into the water, inflicting immense damage on marine life and often leading to mass fatalities. Oil and lubricants are particularly toxic to aquatic life, especially the tiny organisms in plankton and neuston (organisms living near the water’s surface). Oil residues can linger on the sea surface for extended periods, drifting with currents, washing ashore, or sinking to the seabed, posing long-term ecological challenges."]
["In 1996, the six coastal states of the Black Sea signed the Strategic Action Plan for the Environmental Protection and Rehabilitation of the Black Sea. This plan was necessitated by the alarming destruction of the Black Sea’s unique natural complexes due to human impact. Today, the urgency to preserve the Black Sea is greater than ever as it faces the repercussions of the Russian invasion. How is the war affecting the Black Sea, and what measures can be taken to mitigate the consequences for both nature and humanity?"]
[]
["Together with a marine biologist and a specialist from the climate department at NGO Ecoaction, Sofiia Sadohurska, we dive into details about the uniqueness of the Black Sea, why its biodiversity needs to be protected, and how the war affects its ecosystem. We will also discover if there is any hope for the sea’s restoration and how to overcome the consequences of war."]
["The Black Sea before the war VS now"]
[]
["The Black Sea and its coastlines hold cherished memories for millions. For thousands of years, this region has been a nexus of trade routes between Europe and Asia, rendering it significant from both biological and geographical perspectives. It is a unique sea basin, characterised by distinct climatic conditions, natural factors, and a rich biodiversity."]
[]
["The Black Sea is an extraordinary body of water, distinct from other seas and oceans. Geographically, it is a semi-enclosed sea, completely encircled by land, with limited connection to the World Ocean through a system of straits. It receives fresh water from multiple rivers, resulting in the Black Sea’s salinity being almost half that of ocean waters. Another unique feature of the Black Sea is its status as the world’s largest meromictic basin, meaning its upper water layer does not mix with the lower, oxygen-depleted layer rich in hydrogen sulphide, which accounts for over 80% of the sea’s total volume. Consequently, its rich biodiversity is confined to the oxygen-rich upper layer."]
[]
["The current sea basin formed just 6–8 thousand years ago with the emergence of the Bosphorus strait, allowing the saline waters of the Mediterranean to mix with the existing freshwater basin. The Black Sea’s biodiversity comprises ancient species and those introduced from the Mediterranean. The combination of these exceptional conditions and the sea’s isolation have fostered a unique biodiversity, including endemic species found nowhere else in the world."]
[]
["However, its semi-enclosed nature and the large volume of oxygen-depleted waters render the Black Sea particularly susceptible to human activity and climate change."]
[]
["Despite challenges, since the 1990s, there has been hope for the revival of marine life in the Black Sea. Scientists have observed signs of ecosystem restoration in its northern part, particularly due to a reduction in biogenic substances flowing from rivers, which in turn has lessened the concentration of organic compounds in the Black Sea’s shelf area. However, the Russian invasion commenced in 2014 poses a significant threat to the Black Sea’s condition. The impact of Russian occupation and warfare is multifaceted and complex, disrupting not only regional security but also altering sea transportation routes and water management and hindering decades of scientific research by Ukrainian scientists. It has emerged as a new ecological challenge."]
[]
["Military activities harm the nature reserve fund, leading to sea pollution from sunken equipment and damaged coastal infrastructure, and adversely affect the coastal ecosystems."]
["Impact of the war on seas and coastal Areas"]
[]
["Since the Russian-Ukrainian war erupted in 2014, numerous protected areas have fallen under Russian occupation. Many suffer from inadequate protection and altered statuses, while others are directly impacted by the actions of the occupiers. A notable example is the militarisation of Crimea, including military exercises in or near protected zones. The Russians have conducted extensive military drills near Cape Chauda on the Kerch Peninsula, adversely affecting the steppe, coastal, and marine ecosystems of the Opuk Nature Reserve. In areas of intense militarisation and training, a significant amount of ammunition has been used, particularly at sea, causing harm to living organisms and contaminating soil, air, and water."]
[]
["Protected areas have also suffered damage or destruction due to natural resource depletion and quarry construction. For instance, the Bakal Spit in northern Crimea, a regional landscape park, experienced illegal sand mining by the occupiers for various construction projects on the peninsula. Furthermore, large-scale infrastructure projects pose additional risks. The infamous Kerch Bridge, built in 2018, could have altered ecosystems and hydrogeological conditions in the Kerch Strait and the entire Azov Sea. The construction of this bridge virtually destroyed the natural habitats on Tuzla Island in the Kerch Strait and disrupted the migration routes of marine animals."]
["With the onset of the full-scale Russian war against Ukraine, the impact on the seas has intensified. Protected areas along the Black and Azov Seas are suffering from both occupation and hostilities. All of Ukraine’s marine nature reserves, along with seven coastal national nature parks and one biosphere reserve, are currently under occupation. These areas, encompassing a diverse range of habitats like seagrass meadows, underwater seaweed forests, dunes, and lagoons, were established to safeguard the unique marine and coastal ecosystems of the Black and Azov Seas."]
["Certain territories, like the Kinburn Spit or Dzharylhach Island in the Black Sea, face direct hostilities or have Russian troops present. The building of fortifications and trenches, along with the movement of military equipment and frequent explosions, are damaging vegetation and soil. Fires, ignited both by combat and other factors, add to the devastation. Occupation exacerbates the issue, with the occupiers mining lands and destroying firefighting equipment. The Kinburn Spit alone witnessed 131 fires in the first year of the full-scale invasion, marking 2022 as the year with the largest fires in recent decades. These fires devastated over 5,000 hectares, impacting steppe and coastal ecosystems and the nesting sites of around 100 bird species.Certain territories, like the Kinburn Spit or Dzharylhach Island in the Black Sea, face direct hostilities or have Russian troops present. The building of fortifications and trenches, along with the movement of military equipment and frequent explosions, are damaging vegetation and soil. Fires, ignited both by combat and other factors, add to the devastation. Occupation exacerbates the issue, with the occupiers mining lands and destroying firefighting equipment. The Kinburn Spit alone witnessed 131 fires in the first year of the full-scale invasion, marking 2022 as the year with the largest fires in recent decades. These fires devastated over 5,000 hectares, impacting steppe and coastal ecosystems and the nesting sites of around 100 bird species."]
[]
["The catastrophe at the Kakhovka hydroelectric power plant on June 6, 2023, resulting from the Russian detonation of the dam, significantly impacted nature conservation efforts. The flooding affected several nature reserves, including the Lower Dnipro National Nature Park, established to protect the natural floodplain complexes of the Dnipro Delta. This event posed a serious threat to the survival of various species and ecosystems."]
["How Russia pollutes Ukrainian marine environment"]
[]
["The destruction of the Kakhovka HPP resulted in the release of vast volumes of fresh water contaminated with fertilisers, fuel, lubricants, and sewage into the Black Sea. Following the hydroelectric power plant explosion, this polluted river water reached the Danube’s mouth, affecting over 7,300 km2 of the sea area. Scientists have noted a rapid decrease in water salinity in the Gulf of Odesa. In some coastal zones, exceedingly high nitrogen levels were recorded, indicative of sewage pollution. This significant drop in salinity has caused the demise of various marine life, including mussel colonies, fry, and fish eggs, potentially disrupting the entire coastal ecosystem. The influx of polluted fresh water has also triggered extensive algae blooms, further impacting the sea’s health."]
[]
["Unfortunately, the environmental impact of the infrastructure facilities destruction in the war is not a singular occurrence. Numerous Russian attacks along the Black Sea coastline have led to the devastation of sewage treatment plants and port infrastructures, resulting in unchecked pollution entering the sea. The monitoring group CEOBS has documented several instances of such pollution in the Dnipro-Buh estuary near Mykolaiv. Russian attacks have targeted key industrial sites on the estuary’s left bank, including the Mykolaiv Alumina Plant, where storage tanks for fuel, caustic soda, and recyclable materials were damaged. Additionally, grain terminals and a sunflower oil terminal were hit, leading to significant pollution of the estuary waters and the surrounding marine environment "]
[]
["Additional pollution in the sea comes from submerged military equipment, ships, and ammunition, releasing chemical compounds, rocket fuel residues, and heavy metals into the water. Sunken ships and aircraft are also significant sources of oil pollution. Due to the presence of Russian mines, scientists’ access to the Black Sea is restricted, but satellite imagery provides vital data on oil and other pollutants."]
[]
["Scientists estimate that oil slicks have covered tens of thousands of square kilometres of Ukraine’s marine protected areas. This oil layer impedes oxygen penetration into the water, inflicting immense damage on marine life and often leading to mass fatalities. Oil and lubricants are particularly toxic to aquatic life, especially the tiny organisms in plankton and neuston (organisms living near the water’s surface). Oil residues can linger on the sea surface for extended periods, drifting with currents, washing ashore, or sinking to the seabed, posing long-term ecological challenges."]
[]
["In 1996, the six coastal states of the Black Sea signed the Strategic Action Plan for the Environmental Protection and Rehabilitation of the Black Sea. This plan was necessitated by the alarming destruction of the Black Sea’s unique natural complexes due to human impact. Today, the urgency to preserve the Black Sea is greater than ever as it faces the repercussions of the Russian invasion. How is the war affecting the Black Sea, and what measures can be taken to mitigate the consequences for both nature and humanity?"]
[]
["Together with a marine biologist and a specialist from the climate department at NGO Ecoaction, Sofiia Sadohurska, we dive into details about the uniqueness of the Black Sea, why its biodiversity needs to be protected, and how the war affects its ecosystem. We will also discover if there is any hope for the sea’s restoration and how to overcome the consequences of war."]
["The Black Sea before the war VS now"]
[]
["The Black Sea and its coastlines hold cherished memories for millions. For thousands of years, this region has been a nexus of trade routes between Europe and Asia, rendering it significant from both biological and geographical perspectives. It is a unique sea basin, characterised by distinct climatic conditions, natural factors, and a rich biodiversity."]
[]
["The Black Sea is an extraordinary body of water, distinct from other seas and oceans. Geographically, it is a semi-enclosed sea, completely encircled by land, with limited connection to the World Ocean through a system of straits. It receives fresh water from multiple rivers, resulting in the Black Sea’s salinity being almost half that of ocean waters. Another unique feature of the Black Sea is its status as the world’s largest meromictic basin, meaning its upper water layer does not mix with the lower, oxygen-depleted layer rich in hydrogen sulphide, which accounts for over 80% of the sea’s total volume. Consequently, its rich biodiversity is confined to the oxygen-rich upper layer."]
[]
["The current sea basin formed just 6–8 thousand years ago with the emergence of the Bosphorus strait, allowing the saline waters of the Mediterranean to mix with the existing freshwater basin. The Black Sea’s biodiversity comprises ancient species and those introduced from the Mediterranean. The combination of these exceptional conditions and the sea’s isolation have fostered a unique biodiversity, including endemic species found nowhere else in the world."]
[]
["However, its semi-enclosed nature and the large volume of oxygen-depleted waters render the Black Sea particularly susceptible to human activity and climate change."]
[]
["Despite challenges, since the 1990s, there has been hope for the revival of marine life in the Black Sea. Scientists have observed signs of ecosystem restoration in its northern part, particularly due to a reduction in biogenic substances flowing from rivers, which in turn has lessened the concentration of organic compounds in the Black Sea’s shelf area. However, the Russian invasion commenced in 2014 poses a significant threat to the Black Sea’s condition. The impact of Russian occupation and warfare is multifaceted and complex, disrupting not only regional security but also altering sea transportation routes and water management and hindering decades of scientific research by Ukrainian scientists. It has emerged as a new ecological challenge."]
[]
["Military activities harm the nature reserve fund, leading to sea pollution from sunken equipment and damaged coastal infrastructure, and adversely affect the coastal ecosystems."]
["Impact of the war on seas and coastal Areas"]
[]
["Since the Russian-Ukrainian war erupted in 2014, numerous protected areas have fallen under Russian occupation. Many suffer from inadequate protection and altered statuses, while others are directly impacted by the actions of the occupiers. A notable example is the militarisation of Crimea, including military exercises in or near protected zones. The Russians have conducted extensive military drills near Cape Chauda on the Kerch Peninsula, adversely affecting the steppe, coastal, and marine ecosystems of the Opuk Nature Reserve. In areas of intense militarisation and training, a significant amount of ammunition has been used, particularly at sea, causing harm to living organisms and contaminating soil, air, and water."]
[]
["Protected areas have also suffered damage or destruction due to natural resource depletion and quarry construction. For instance, the Bakal Spit in northern Crimea, a regional landscape park, experienced illegal sand mining by the occupiers for various construction projects on the peninsula. Furthermore, large-scale infrastructure projects pose additional risks. The infamous Kerch Bridge, built in 2018, could have altered ecosystems and hydrogeological conditions in the Kerch Strait and the entire Azov Sea. The construction of this bridge virtually destroyed the natural habitats on Tuzla Island in the Kerch Strait and disrupted the migration routes of marine animals."]
["With the onset of the full-scale Russian war against Ukraine, the impact on the seas has intensified. Protected areas along the Black and Azov Seas are suffering from both occupation and hostilities. All of Ukraine’s marine nature reserves, along with seven coastal national nature parks and one biosphere reserve, are currently under occupation. These areas, encompassing a diverse range of habitats like seagrass meadows, underwater seaweed forests, dunes, and lagoons, were established to safeguard the unique marine and coastal ecosystems of the Black and Azov Seas."]
["Certain territories, like the Kinburn Spit or Dzharylhach Island in the Black Sea, face direct hostilities or have Russian troops present. The building of fortifications and trenches, along with the movement of military equipment and frequent explosions, are damaging vegetation and soil. Fires, ignited both by combat and other factors, add to the devastation. Occupation exacerbates the issue, with the occupiers mining lands and destroying firefighting equipment. The Kinburn Spit alone witnessed 131 fires in the first year of the full-scale invasion, marking 2022 as the year with the largest fires in recent decades. These fires devastated over 5,000 hectares, impacting steppe and coastal ecosystems and the nesting sites of around 100 bird species.Certain territories, like the Kinburn Spit or Dzharylhach Island in the Black Sea, face direct hostilities or have Russian troops present. The building of fortifications and trenches, along with the movement of military equipment and frequent explosions, are damaging vegetation and soil. Fires, ignited both by combat and other factors, add to the devastation. Occupation exacerbates the issue, with the occupiers mining lands and destroying firefighting equipment. The Kinburn Spit alone witnessed 131 fires in the first year of the full-scale invasion, marking 2022 as the year with the largest fires in recent decades. These fires devastated over 5,000 hectares, impacting steppe and coastal ecosystems and the nesting sites of around 100 bird species."]
[]
["The catastrophe at the Kakhovka hydroelectric power plant on June 6, 2023, resulting from the Russian detonation of the dam, significantly impacted nature conservation efforts. The flooding affected several nature reserves, including the Lower Dnipro National Nature Park, established to protect the natural floodplain complexes of the Dnipro Delta. This event posed a serious threat to the survival of various species and ecosystems."]
["How Russia pollutes Ukrainian marine environment"]
[]
["The destruction of the Kakhovka HPP resulted in the release of vast volumes of fresh water contaminated with fertilisers, fuel, lubricants, and sewage into the Black Sea. Following the hydroelectric power plant explosion, this polluted river water reached the Danube’s mouth, affecting over 7,300 km2 of the sea area. Scientists have noted a rapid decrease in water salinity in the Gulf of Odesa. In some coastal zones, exceedingly high nitrogen levels were recorded, indicative of sewage pollution. This significant drop in salinity has caused the demise of various marine life, including mussel colonies, fry, and fish eggs, potentially disrupting the entire coastal ecosystem. The influx of polluted fresh water has also triggered extensive algae blooms, further impacting the sea’s health."]
[]
["Unfortunately, the environmental impact of the infrastructure facilities destruction in the war is not a singular occurrence. Numerous Russian attacks along the Black Sea coastline have led to the devastation of sewage treatment plants and port infrastructures, resulting in unchecked pollution entering the sea. The monitoring group CEOBS has documented several instances of such pollution in the Dnipro-Buh estuary near Mykolaiv. Russian attacks have targeted key industrial sites on the estuary’s left bank, including the Mykolaiv Alumina Plant, where storage tanks for fuel, caustic soda, and recyclable materials were damaged. Additionally, grain terminals and a sunflower oil terminal were hit, leading to significant pollution of the estuary waters and the surrounding marine environment "]
[]
["Additional pollution in the sea comes from submerged military equipment, ships, and ammunition, releasing chemical compounds, rocket fuel residues, and heavy metals into the water. Sunken ships and aircraft are also significant sources of oil pollution. Due to the presence of Russian mines, scientists’ access to the Black Sea is restricted, but satellite imagery provides vital data on oil and other pollutants."]
[]
["Scientists estimate that oil slicks have covered tens of thousands of square kilometres of Ukraine’s marine protected areas. This oil layer impedes oxygen penetration into the water, inflicting immense damage on marine life and often leading to mass fatalities. Oil and lubricants are particularly toxic to aquatic life, especially the tiny organisms in plankton and neuston (organisms living near the water’s surface). Oil residues can linger on the sea surface for extended periods, drifting with currents, washing ashore, or sinking to the seabed, posing long-term ecological challenges.In 1996, the six coastal states of the Black Sea signed the Strategic Action Plan for the Environmental Protection and Rehabilitation of the Black Sea. This plan was necessitated by the alarming destruction of the Black Sea’s unique natural complexes due to human impact. Today, the urgency to preserve the Black Sea is greater than ever as it faces the repercussions of the Russian invasion. How is the war affecting the Black Sea, and what measures can be taken to mitigate the consequences for both nature and humanity?"]
[]
["Together with a marine biologist and a specialist from the climate department at NGO Ecoaction, Sofiia Sadohurska, we dive into details about the uniqueness of the Black Sea, why its biodiversity needs to be protected, and how the war affects its ecosystem. We will also discover if there is any hope for the sea’s restoration and how to overcome the consequences of war."]
["The Black Sea before the war VS now"]
[]
["The Black Sea and its coastlines hold cherished memories for millions. For thousands of years, this region has been a nexus of trade routes between Europe and Asia, rendering it significant from both biological and geographical perspectives. It is a unique sea basin, characterised by distinct climatic conditions, natural factors, and a rich biodiversity."]
[]
["The Black Sea is an extraordinary body of water, distinct from other seas and oceans. Geographically, it is a semi-enclosed sea, completely encircled by land, with limited connection to the World Ocean through a system of straits. It receives fresh water from multiple rivers, resulting in the Black Sea’s salinity being almost half that of ocean waters. Another unique feature of the Black Sea is its status as the world’s largest meromictic basin, meaning its upper water layer does not mix with the lower, oxygen-depleted layer rich in hydrogen sulphide, which accounts for over 80% of the sea’s total volume. Consequently, its rich biodiversity is confined to the oxygen-rich upper layer."]
[]
["The current sea basin formed just 6–8 thousand years ago with the emergence of the Bosphorus strait, allowing the saline waters of the Mediterranean to mix with the existing freshwater basin. The Black Sea’s biodiversity comprises ancient species and those introduced from the Mediterranean. The combination of these exceptional conditions and the sea’s isolation have fostered a unique biodiversity, including endemic species found nowhere else in the world."]
[]
["However, its semi-enclosed nature and the large volume of oxygen-depleted waters render the Black Sea particularly susceptible to human activity and climate change."]
[]
["Despite challenges, since the 1990s, there has been hope for the revival of marine life in the Black Sea. Scientists have observed signs of ecosystem restoration in its northern part, particularly due to a reduction in biogenic substances flowing from rivers, which in turn has lessened the concentration of organic compounds in the Black Sea’s shelf area. However, the Russian invasion commenced in 2014 poses a significant threat to the Black Sea’s condition. The impact of Russian occupation and warfare is multifaceted and complex, disrupting not only regional security but also altering sea transportation routes and water management and hindering decades of scientific research by Ukrainian scientists. It has emerged as a new ecological challenge."]
[]
["Military activities harm the nature reserve fund, leading to sea pollution from sunken equipment and damaged coastal infrastructure, and adversely affect the coastal ecosystems."]
["Impact of the war on seas and coastal Areas"]
[]
["Since the Russian-Ukrainian war erupted in 2014, numerous protected areas have fallen under Russian occupation. Many suffer from inadequate protection and altered statuses, while others are directly impacted by the actions of the occupiers. A notable example is the militarisation of Crimea, including military exercises in or near protected zones. The Russians have conducted extensive military drills near Cape Chauda on the Kerch Peninsula, adversely affecting the steppe, coastal, and marine ecosystems of the Opuk Nature Reserve. In areas of intense militarisation and training, a significant amount of ammunition has been used, particularly at sea, causing harm to living organisms and contaminating soil, air, and water."]
[]
["Protected areas have also suffered damage or destruction due to natural resource depletion and quarry construction. For instance, the Bakal Spit in northern Crimea, a regional landscape park, experienced illegal sand mining by the occupiers for various construction projects on the peninsula. Furthermore, large-scale infrastructure projects pose additional risks. The infamous Kerch Bridge, built in 2018, could have altered ecosystems and hydrogeological conditions in the Kerch Strait and the entire Azov Sea. The construction of this bridge virtually destroyed the natural habitats on Tuzla Island in the Kerch Strait and disrupted the migration routes of marine animals."]
["With the onset of the full-scale Russian war against Ukraine, the impact on the seas has intensified. Protected areas along the Black and Azov Seas are suffering from both occupation and hostilities. All of Ukraine’s marine nature reserves, along with seven coastal national nature parks and one biosphere reserve, are currently under occupation. These areas, encompassing a diverse range of habitats like seagrass meadows, underwater seaweed forests, dunes, and lagoons, were established to safeguard the unique marine and coastal ecosystems of the Black and Azov Seas."]
["Certain territories, like the Kinburn Spit or Dzharylhach Island in the Black Sea, face direct hostilities or have Russian troops present. The building of fortifications and trenches, along with the movement of military equipment and frequent explosions, are damaging vegetation and soil. Fires, ignited both by combat and other factors, add to the devastation. Occupation exacerbates the issue, with the occupiers mining lands and destroying firefighting equipment. The Kinburn Spit alone witnessed 131 fires in the first year of the full-scale invasion, marking 2022 as the year with the largest fires in recent decades. These fires devastated over 5,000 hectares, impacting steppe and coastal ecosystems and the nesting sites of around 100 bird species.Certain territories, like the Kinburn Spit or Dzharylhach Island in the Black Sea, face direct hostilities or have Russian troops present. The building of fortifications and trenches, along with the movement of military equipment and frequent explosions, are damaging vegetation and soil. Fires, ignited both by combat and other factors, add to the devastation. Occupation exacerbates the issue, with the occupiers mining lands and destroying firefighting equipment. The Kinburn Spit alone witnessed 131 fires in the first year of the full-scale invasion, marking 2022 as the year with the largest fires in recent decades. These fires devastated over 5,000 hectares, impacting steppe and coastal ecosystems and the nesting sites of around 100 bird species."]
[]
["The catastrophe at the Kakhovka hydroelectric power plant on June 6, 2023, resulting from the Russian detonation of the dam, significantly impacted nature conservation efforts. The flooding affected several nature reserves, including the Lower Dnipro National Nature Park, established to protect the natural floodplain complexes of the Dnipro Delta. This event posed a serious threat to the survival of various species and ecosystems."]
["How Russia pollutes Ukrainian marine environment"]
[]
["The destruction of the Kakhovka HPP resulted in the release of vast volumes of fresh water contaminated with fertilisers, fuel, lubricants, and sewage into the Black Sea. Following the hydroelectric power plant explosion, this polluted river water reached the Danube’s mouth, affecting over 7,300 km2 of the sea area. Scientists have noted a rapid decrease in water salinity in the Gulf of Odesa. In some coastal zones, exceedingly high nitrogen levels were recorded, indicative of sewage pollution. This significant drop in salinity has caused the demise of various marine life, including mussel colonies, fry, and fish eggs, potentially disrupting the entire coastal ecosystem. The influx of polluted fresh water has also triggered extensive algae blooms, further impacting the sea’s health."]
[]
["Unfortunately, the environmental impact of the infrastructure facilities destruction in the war is not a singular occurrence. Numerous Russian attacks along the Black Sea coastline have led to the devastation of sewage treatment plants and port infrastructures, resulting in unchecked pollution entering the sea. The monitoring group CEOBS has documented several instances of such pollution in the Dnipro-Buh estuary near Mykolaiv. Russian attacks have targeted key industrial sites on the estuary’s left bank, including the Mykolaiv Alumina Plant, where storage tanks for fuel, caustic soda, and recyclable materials were damaged. Additionally, grain terminals and a sunflower oil terminal were hit, leading to significant pollution of the estuary waters and the surrounding marine environment "]
[]
["Additional pollution in the sea comes from submerged military equipment, ships, and ammunition, releasing chemical compounds, rocket fuel residues, and heavy metals into the water. Sunken ships and aircraft are also significant sources of oil pollution. Due to the presence of Russian mines, scientists’ access to the Black Sea is restricted, but satellite imagery provides vital data on oil and other pollutants."]
[]
["Scientists estimate that oil slicks have covered tens of thousands of square kilometres of Ukraine’s marine protected areas. This oil layer impedes oxygen penetration into the water, inflicting immense damage on marine life and often leading to mass fatalities. Oil and lubricants are particularly toxic to aquatic life, especially the tiny organisms in plankton and neuston (organisms living near the water’s surface). Oil residues can linger on the sea surface for extended periods, drifting with currents, washing ashore, or sinking to the seabed, posing long-term ecological challenges."]
[]
["In 1996, the six coastal states of the Black Sea signed the Strategic Action Plan for the Environmental Protection and Rehabilitation of the Black Sea. This plan was necessitated by the alarming destruction of the Black Sea’s unique natural complexes due to human impact. Today, the urgency to preserve the Black Sea is greater than ever as it faces the repercussions of the Russian invasion. How is the war affecting the Black Sea, and what measures can be taken to mitigate the consequences for both nature and humanity?"]
[]
["Together with a marine biologist and a specialist from the climate department at NGO Ecoaction, Sofiia Sadohurska, we dive into details about the uniqueness of the Black Sea, why its biodiversity needs to be protected, and how the war affects its ecosystem. We will also discover if there is any hope for the sea’s restoration and how to overcome the consequences of war."]
["The Black Sea before the war VS now"]
[]
["The Black Sea and its coastlines hold cherished memories for millions. For thousands of years, this region has been a nexus of trade routes between Europe and Asia, rendering it significant from both biological and geographical perspectives. It is a unique sea basin, characterised by distinct climatic conditions, natural factors, and a rich biodiversity."]
[]
["The Black Sea is an extraordinary body of water, distinct from other seas and oceans. Geographically, it is a semi-enclosed sea, completely encircled by land, with limited connection to the World Ocean through a system of straits. It receives fresh water from multiple rivers, resulting in the Black Sea’s salinity being almost half that of ocean waters. Another unique feature of the Black Sea is its status as the world’s largest meromictic basin, meaning its upper water layer does not mix with the lower, oxygen-depleted layer rich in hydrogen sulphide, which accounts for over 80% of the sea’s total volume. Consequently, its rich biodiversity is confined to the oxygen-rich upper layer."]
[]
["The current sea basin formed just 6–8 thousand years ago with the emergence of the Bosphorus strait, allowing the saline waters of the Mediterranean to mix with the existing freshwater basin. The Black Sea’s biodiversity comprises ancient species and those introduced from the Mediterranean. The combination of these exceptional conditions and the sea’s isolation have fostered a unique biodiversity, including endemic species found nowhere else in the world."]
[]
["However, its semi-enclosed nature and the large volume of oxygen-depleted waters render the Black Sea particularly susceptible to human activity and climate change."]
[]
["Despite challenges, since the 1990s, there has been hope for the revival of marine life in the Black Sea. Scientists have observed signs of ecosystem restoration in its northern part, particularly due to a reduction in biogenic substances flowing from rivers, which in turn has lessened the concentration of organic compounds in the Black Sea’s shelf area. However, the Russian invasion commenced in 2014 poses a significant threat to the Black Sea’s condition. The impact of Russian occupation and warfare is multifaceted and complex, disrupting not only regional security but also altering sea transportation routes and water management and hindering decades of scientific research by Ukrainian scientists. It has emerged as a new ecological challenge."]
[]
["Military activities harm the nature reserve fund, leading to sea pollution from sunken equipment and damaged coastal infrastructure, and adversely affect the coastal ecosystems."]
["Impact of the war on seas and coastal Areas"]
[]
["Since the Russian-Ukrainian war erupted in 2014, numerous protected areas have fallen under Russian occupation. Many suffer from inadequate protection and altered statuses, while others are directly impacted by the actions of the occupiers. A notable example is the militarisation of Crimea, including military exercises in or near protected zones. The Russians have conducted extensive military drills near Cape Chauda on the Kerch Peninsula, adversely affecting the steppe, coastal, and marine ecosystems of the Opuk Nature Reserve. In areas of intense militarisation and training, a significant amount of ammunition has been used, particularly at sea, causing harm to living organisms and contaminating soil, air, and water."]
[]
["Protected areas have also suffered damage or destruction due to natural resource depletion and quarry construction. For instance, the Bakal Spit in northern Crimea, a regional landscape park, experienced illegal sand mining by the occupiers for various construction projects on the peninsula. Furthermore, large-scale infrastructure projects pose additional risks. The infamous Kerch Bridge, built in 2018, could have altered ecosystems and hydrogeological conditions in the Kerch Strait and the entire Azov Sea. The construction of this bridge virtually destroyed the natural habitats on Tuzla Island in the Kerch Strait and disrupted the migration routes of marine animals."]
["With the onset of the full-scale Russian war against Ukraine, the impact on the seas has intensified. Protected areas along the Black and Azov Seas are suffering from both occupation and hostilities. All of Ukraine’s marine nature reserves, along with seven coastal national nature parks and one biosphere reserve, are currently under occupation. These areas, encompassing a diverse range of habitats like seagrass meadows, underwater seaweed forests, dunes, and lagoons, were established to safeguard the unique marine and coastal ecosystems of the Black and Azov Seas."]
["Certain territories, like the Kinburn Spit or Dzharylhach Island in the Black Sea, face direct hostilities or have Russian troops present. The building of fortifications and trenches, along with the movement of military equipment and frequent explosions, are damaging vegetation and soil. Fires, ignited both by combat and other factors, add to the devastation. Occupation exacerbates the issue, with the occupiers mining lands and destroying firefighting equipment. The Kinburn Spit alone witnessed 131 fires in the first year of the full-scale invasion, marking 2022 as the year with the largest fires in recent decades. These fires devastated over 5,000 hectares, impacting steppe and coastal ecosystems and the nesting sites of around 100 bird species.Certain territories, like the Kinburn Spit or Dzharylhach Island in the Black Sea, face direct hostilities or have Russian troops present. The building of fortifications and trenches, along with the movement of military equipment and frequent explosions, are damaging vegetation and soil. Fires, ignited both by combat and other factors, add to the devastation. Occupation exacerbates the issue, with the occupiers mining lands and destroying firefighting equipment. The Kinburn Spit alone witnessed 131 fires in the first year of the full-scale invasion, marking 2022 as the year with the largest fires in recent decades. These fires devastated over 5,000 hectares, impacting steppe and coastal ecosystems and the nesting sites of around 100 bird species."]
[]
["The catastrophe at the Kakhovka hydroelectric power plant on June 6, 2023, resulting from the Russian detonation of the dam, significantly impacted nature conservation efforts. The flooding affected several nature reserves, including the Lower Dnipro National Nature Park, established to protect the natural floodplain complexes of the Dnipro Delta. This event posed a serious threat to the survival of various species and ecosystems."]
["How Russia pollutes Ukrainian marine environment"]
[]
["The destruction of the Kakhovka HPP resulted in the release of vast volumes of fresh water contaminated with fertilisers, fuel, lubricants, and sewage into the Black Sea. Following the hydroelectric power plant explosion, this polluted river water reached the Danube’s mouth, affecting over 7,300 km2 of the sea area. Scientists have noted a rapid decrease in water salinity in the Gulf of Odesa. In some coastal zones, exceedingly high nitrogen levels were recorded, indicative of sewage pollution. This significant drop in salinity has caused the demise of various marine life, including mussel colonies, fry, and fish eggs, potentially disrupting the entire coastal ecosystem. The influx of polluted fresh water has also triggered extensive algae blooms, further impacting the sea’s health."]
[]
["Unfortunately, the environmental impact of the infrastructure facilities destruction in the war is not a singular occurrence. Numerous Russian attacks along the Black Sea coastline have led to the devastation of sewage treatment plants and port infrastructures, resulting in unchecked pollution entering the sea. The monitoring group CEOBS has documented several instances of such pollution in the Dnipro-Buh estuary near Mykolaiv. Russian attacks have targeted key industrial sites on the estuary’s left bank, including the Mykolaiv Alumina Plant, where storage tanks for fuel, caustic soda, and recyclable materials were damaged. Additionally, grain terminals and a sunflower oil terminal were hit, leading to significant pollution of the estuary waters and the surrounding marine environment "]
[]
["Additional pollution in the sea comes from submerged military equipment, ships, and ammunition, releasing chemical compounds, rocket fuel residues, and heavy metals into the water. Sunken ships and aircraft are also significant sources of oil pollution. Due to the presence of Russian mines, scientists’ access to the Black Sea is restricted, but satellite imagery provides vital data on oil and other pollutants."]
[]
["Scientists estimate that oil slicks have covered tens of thousands of square kilometres of Ukraine’s marine protected areas. This oil layer impedes oxygen penetration into the water, inflicting immense damage on marine life and often leading to mass fatalities. Oil and lubricants are particularly toxic to aquatic life, especially the tiny organisms in plankton and neuston (organisms living near the water’s surface). Oil residues can linger on the sea surface for extended periods, drifting with currents, washing ashore, or sinking to the seabed, posing long-term ecological challenges."]
[]
["In 1996, the six coastal states of the Black Sea signed the Strategic Action Plan for the Environmental Protection and Rehabilitation of the Black Sea. This plan was necessitated by the alarming destruction of the Black Sea’s unique natural complexes due to human impact. Today, the urgency to preserve the Black Sea is greater than ever as it faces the repercussions of the Russian invasion. How is the war affecting the Black Sea, and what measures can be taken to mitigate the consequences for both nature and humanity?"]
[]
["Together with a marine biologist and a specialist from the climate department at NGO Ecoaction, Sofiia Sadohurska, we dive into details about the uniqueness of the Black Sea, why its biodiversity needs to be protected, and how the war affects its ecosystem. We will also discover if there is any hope for the sea’s restoration and how to overcome the consequences of war."]
["The Black Sea before the war VS now"]
[]
["The Black Sea and its coastlines hold cherished memories for millions. For thousands of years, this region has been a nexus of trade routes between Europe and Asia, rendering it significant from both biological and geographical perspectives. It is a unique sea basin, characterised by distinct climatic conditions, natural factors, and a rich biodiversity."]
[]
["The Black Sea is an extraordinary body of water, distinct from other seas and oceans. Geographically, it is a semi-enclosed sea, completely encircled by land, with limited connection to the World Ocean through a system of straits. It receives fresh water from multiple rivers, resulting in the Black Sea’s salinity being almost half that of ocean waters. Another unique feature of the Black Sea is its status as the world’s largest meromictic basin, meaning its upper water layer does not mix with the lower, oxygen-depleted layer rich in hydrogen sulphide, which accounts for over 80% of the sea’s total volume. Consequently, its rich biodiversity is confined to the oxygen-rich upper layer."]
[]
["The current sea basin formed just 6–8 thousand years ago with the emergence of the Bosphorus strait, allowing the saline waters of the Mediterranean to mix with the existing freshwater basin. The Black Sea’s biodiversity comprises ancient species and those introduced from the Mediterranean. The combination of these exceptional conditions and the sea’s isolation have fostered a unique biodiversity, including endemic species found nowhere else in the world."]
[]
["However, its semi-enclosed nature and the large volume of oxygen-depleted waters render the Black Sea particularly susceptible to human activity and climate change."]
[]
["Despite challenges, since the 1990s, there has been hope for the revival of marine life in the Black Sea. Scientists have observed signs of ecosystem restoration in its northern part, particularly due to a reduction in biogenic substances flowing from rivers, which in turn has lessened the concentration of organic compounds in the Black Sea’s shelf area. However, the Russian invasion commenced in 2014 poses a significant threat to the Black Sea’s condition. The impact of Russian occupation and warfare is multifaceted and complex, disrupting not only regional security but also altering sea transportation routes and water management and hindering decades of scientific research by Ukrainian scientists. It has emerged as a new ecological challenge."]
[]
["Military activities harm the nature reserve fund, leading to sea pollution from sunken equipment and damaged coastal infrastructure, and adversely affect the coastal ecosystems."]
["Impact of the war on seas and coastal Areas"]
[]
["Since the Russian-Ukrainian war erupted in 2014, numerous protected areas have fallen under Russian occupation. Many suffer from inadequate protection and altered statuses, while others are directly impacted by the actions of the occupiers. A notable example is the militarisation of Crimea, including military exercises in or near protected zones. The Russians have conducted extensive military drills near Cape Chauda on the Kerch Peninsula, adversely affecting the steppe, coastal, and marine ecosystems of the Opuk Nature Reserve. In areas of intense militarisation and training, a significant amount of ammunition has been used, particularly at sea, causing harm to living organisms and contaminating soil, air, and water."]
[]
["Protected areas have also suffered damage or destruction due to natural resource depletion and quarry construction. For instance, the Bakal Spit in northern Crimea, a regional landscape park, experienced illegal sand mining by the occupiers for various construction projects on the peninsula. Furthermore, large-scale infrastructure projects pose additional risks. The infamous Kerch Bridge, built in 2018, could have altered ecosystems and hydrogeological conditions in the Kerch Strait and the entire Azov Sea. The construction of this bridge virtually destroyed the natural habitats on Tuzla Island in the Kerch Strait and disrupted the migration routes of marine animals."]
["With the onset of the full-scale Russian war against Ukraine, the impact on the seas has intensified. Protected areas along the Black and Azov Seas are suffering from both occupation and hostilities. All of Ukraine’s marine nature reserves, along with seven coastal national nature parks and one biosphere reserve, are currently under occupation. These areas, encompassing a diverse range of habitats like seagrass meadows, underwater seaweed forests, dunes, and lagoons, were established to safeguard the unique marine and coastal ecosystems of the Black and Azov Seas."]
["Certain territories, like the Kinburn Spit or Dzharylhach Island in the Black Sea, face direct hostilities or have Russian troops present. The building of fortifications and trenches, along with the movement of military equipment and frequent explosions, are damaging vegetation and soil. Fires, ignited both by combat and other factors, add to the devastation. Occupation exacerbates the issue, with the occupiers mining lands and destroying firefighting equipment. The Kinburn Spit alone witnessed 131 fires in the first year of the full-scale invasion, marking 2022 as the year with the largest fires in recent decades. These fires devastated over 5,000 hectares, impacting steppe and coastal ecosystems and the nesting sites of around 100 bird species.Certain territories, like the Kinburn Spit or Dzharylhach Island in the Black Sea, face direct hostilities or have Russian troops present. The building of fortifications and trenches, along with the movement of military equipment and frequent explosions, are damaging vegetation and soil. Fires, ignited both by combat and other factors, add to the devastation. Occupation exacerbates the issue, with the occupiers mining lands and destroying firefighting equipment. The Kinburn Spit alone witnessed 131 fires in the first year of the full-scale invasion, marking 2022 as the year with the largest fires in recent decades. These fires devastated over 5,000 hectares, impacting steppe and coastal ecosystems and the nesting sites of around 100 bird species."]
[]
["The catastrophe at the Kakhovka hydroelectric power plant on June 6, 2023, resulting from the Russian detonation of the dam, significantly impacted nature conservation efforts. The flooding affected several nature reserves, including the Lower Dnipro National Nature Park, established to protect the natural floodplain complexes of the Dnipro Delta. This event posed a serious threat to the survival of various species and ecosystems."]
["How Russia pollutes Ukrainian marine environment"]
[]
["The destruction of the Kakhovka HPP resulted in the release of vast volumes of fresh water contaminated with fertilisers, fuel, lubricants, and sewage into the Black Sea. Following the hydroelectric power plant explosion, this polluted river water reached the Danube’s mouth, affecting over 7,300 km2 of the sea area. Scientists have noted a rapid decrease in water salinity in the Gulf of Odesa. In some coastal zones, exceedingly high nitrogen levels were recorded, indicative of sewage pollution. This significant drop in salinity has caused the demise of various marine life, including mussel colonies, fry, and fish eggs, potentially disrupting the entire coastal ecosystem. The influx of polluted fresh water has also triggered extensive algae blooms, further impacting the sea’s health."]
[]
["Unfortunately, the environmental impact of the infrastructure facilities destruction in the war is not a singular occurrence. Numerous Russian attacks along the Black Sea coastline have led to the devastation of sewage treatment plants and port infrastructures, resulting in unchecked pollution entering the sea. The monitoring group CEOBS has documented several instances of such pollution in the Dnipro-Buh estuary near Mykolaiv. Russian attacks have targeted key industrial sites on the estuary’s left bank, including the Mykolaiv Alumina Plant, where storage tanks for fuel, caustic soda, and recyclable materials were damaged. Additionally, grain terminals and a sunflower oil terminal were hit, leading to significant pollution of the estuary waters and the surrounding marine environment "]
[]
["Additional pollution in the sea comes from submerged military equipment, ships, and ammunition, releasing chemical compounds, rocket fuel residues, and heavy metals into the water. Sunken ships and aircraft are also significant sources of oil pollution. Due to the presence of Russian mines, scientists’ access to the Black Sea is restricted, but satellite imagery provides vital data on oil and other pollutants."]
[]
["Scientists estimate that oil slicks have covered tens of thousands of square kilometres of Ukraine’s marine protected areas. This oil layer impedes oxygen penetration into the water, inflicting immense damage on marine life and often leading to mass fatalities. Oil and lubricants are particularly toxic to aquatic life, especially the tiny organisms in plankton and neuston (organisms living near the water’s surface). Oil residues can linger on the sea surface for extended periods, drifting with currents, washing ashore, or sinking to the seabed, posing long-term ecological challenges."]
["In 1996, the six coastal states of the Black Sea signed the Strategic Action Plan for the Environmental Protection and Rehabilitation of the Black Sea. This plan was necessitated by the alarming destruction of the Black Sea’s unique natural complexes due to human impact. Today, the urgency to preserve the Black Sea is greater than ever as it faces the repercussions of the Russian invasion. How is the war affecting the Black Sea, and what measures can be taken to mitigate the consequences for both nature and humanity?"]
[]
["Together with a marine biologist and a specialist from the climate department at NGO Ecoaction, Sofiia Sadohurska, we dive into details about the uniqueness of the Black Sea, why its biodiversity needs to be protected, and how the war affects its ecosystem. We will also discover if there is any hope for the sea’s restoration and how to overcome the consequences of war."]
["The Black Sea before the war VS now"]
[]
["The Black Sea and its coastlines hold cherished memories for millions. For thousands of years, this region has been a nexus of trade routes between Europe and Asia, rendering it significant from both biological and geographical perspectives. It is a unique sea basin, characterised by distinct climatic conditions, natural factors, and a rich biodiversity."]
[]
["The Black Sea is an extraordinary body of water, distinct from other seas and oceans. Geographically, it is a semi-enclosed sea, completely encircled by land, with limited connection to the World Ocean through a system of straits. It receives fresh water from multiple rivers, resulting in the Black Sea’s salinity being almost half that of ocean waters. Another unique feature of the Black Sea is its status as the world’s largest meromictic basin, meaning its upper water layer does not mix with the lower, oxygen-depleted layer rich in hydrogen sulphide, which accounts for over 80% of the sea’s total volume. Consequently, its rich biodiversity is confined to the oxygen-rich upper layer."]
[]
["The current sea basin formed just 6–8 thousand years ago with the emergence of the Bosphorus strait, allowing the saline waters of the Mediterranean to mix with the existing freshwater basin. The Black Sea’s biodiversity comprises ancient species and those introduced from the Mediterranean. The combination of these exceptional conditions and the sea’s isolation have fostered a unique biodiversity, including endemic species found nowhere else in the world."]
[]
["However, its semi-enclosed nature and the large volume of oxygen-depleted waters render the Black Sea particularly susceptible to human activity and climate change."]
[]
["Despite challenges, since the 1990s, there has been hope for the revival of marine life in the Black Sea. Scientists have observed signs of ecosystem restoration in its northern part, particularly due to a reduction in biogenic substances flowing from rivers, which in turn has lessened the concentration of organic compounds in the Black Sea’s shelf area. However, the Russian invasion commenced in 2014 poses a significant threat to the Black Sea’s condition. The impact of Russian occupation and warfare is multifaceted and complex, disrupting not only regional security but also altering sea transportation routes and water management and hindering decades of scientific research by Ukrainian scientists. It has emerged as a new ecological challenge."]
[]
["Military activities harm the nature reserve fund, leading to sea pollution from sunken equipment and damaged coastal infrastructure, and adversely affect the coastal ecosystems."]
["Impact of the war on seas and coastal Areas"]
[]
["Since the Russian-Ukrainian war erupted in 2014, numerous protected areas have fallen under Russian occupation. Many suffer from inadequate protection and altered statuses, while others are directly impacted by the actions of the occupiers. A notable example is the militarisation of Crimea, including military exercises in or near protected zones. The Russians have conducted extensive military drills near Cape Chauda on the Kerch Peninsula, adversely affecting the steppe, coastal, and marine ecosystems of the Opuk Nature Reserve. In areas of intense militarisation and training, a significant amount of ammunition has been used, particularly at sea, causing harm to living organisms and contaminating soil, air, and water."]
[]
["Protected areas have also suffered damage or destruction due to natural resource depletion and quarry construction. For instance, the Bakal Spit in northern Crimea, a regional landscape park, experienced illegal sand mining by the occupiers for various construction projects on the peninsula. Furthermore, large-scale infrastructure projects pose additional risks. The infamous Kerch Bridge, built in 2018, could have altered ecosystems and hydrogeological conditions in the Kerch Strait and the entire Azov Sea. The construction of this bridge virtually destroyed the natural habitats on Tuzla Island in the Kerch Strait and "]